Japan: Nuclear Energy

Question 0

Japan nuclear energy stats early 1990s

Answer 0

Was only behind the US, FRANCE and the Soviet Union in number of nuclear facilities by the early 1990s

By 1989 - 39 plants accounted for 25.5% of the energy generated - the largest followed by coal and natural gas

12 more plants under construction with hopes that by 2010 - 43% of energy would be provided by nuclear energy

(IEEE, 1991)

Question 1

First nuclear problem in Japan?

Answer 1

1991 - MIHAMA

Water cooling system springs a leak - triggers first non-test of emergency procedures.

Primary cooling system encountered problems of low pressure and water levels - water leaked into another cooling system with some condensing and being emitted externally as steam

Radioactivity levels were considered very low but it took 90 minutes to inform local authorities attracting criticism.

Question 2

Did Japan reach this target?

Answer 2

No…

Question 3

Japan energy stats 2011

Electricity review Japan, 2011

Answer 3

Resource poor Japan relies on imports for 96% of its primary energy consumption.

Despite diversification of its energy sources - Japan still relies on oil for 50% of its energy supply - 90% of which still comes from the politically unstable ME….

Question 4

How many died in the tsunami event that caused the nuclear incident?

Answer 4

18,000

Question 5

Who owns the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear plant?

Answer 5

TEPCO

Tokyo Electric Power Company.

Question 6

Why would regulators turn a blind eye to bad practices and other issues within the industry?

Answer 6

Many regulators are likely to seek further employment in the industry they regulate.

Therefore: regulating to strict standards may prove detrimental two their future work prospects.

Bureaucrats in governmental ministries such as MITI retire from positions aged 50 and 55 often moving into high-level positions in private industries they regulated in earlier posts.

(Aldrich, 2011)

Question 7

The emergence of hydro electric power…

Answer 7

Hydro electric power had been used prior to the adoption of coal given Japan’s steel topography - but had declined as coal increased.

Post the 70s Hydroelectric power re-emerged. Although sustained growth in this field has been desirable, the majority of suitable sites have been employed in the use of nuclear energy

It is seen as a reliable and stable method of electricity production in terms of cost.

Question 8

The emergence of nuclear energy?

Answer 8

Japan’s nuclear power plants emerged from energy diversification and a recognised need to protect the environment post 1960

The first nuclear power plant came in to operation in 1966 - by 2005 there were 54 nuclear reactors in Japan accounting for as much as a third of all electric production.

With the introduction of MOX fuel - surplus spent uranium can be reused reducing environmental impact.

Question 9

The decline in nuclear energy….

Answer 9

Post 2011 and Fukushima Dai-ichi

By may that year 17 out of 54 reactors were in use. Since then nuclear energy supply has all but reduced to zero

Old thermal plants have been restarted to try and meet the decline in energy production - but this risks increasing pollution rates making the target of reducing co2 by 25% by 2020 increasingly challenging. (Hays 2012)

Reactor safety is still concerning also - government inspections must be passed (Hays 2012)

Question 10

Does this occur in other countries?

Answer 10

Yes. It happens in France and the US but it isn’t so ingrained as it is in Japan…

Question 11

Has Japan tried to out rule this process?

Answer 11

Yes but academics and researchers regularly find that this is an institutionalised issue that continues to occur…

Question 12

An AP news article suggested how many regulators had been “affiliated either with the industry or groups that promote nuclear power.”??

Answer 12

26 of 95!

Question 13

Worst nuclear power plant disaster in Japan occurred when and where?

Answer 13

March 11th 2011

Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear plant

Question 14

Therefore, Amakudari not only promotes strong networks…it also promotes what?

Answer 14

An incentivised culture where infractions or bad practices are overlooked in return for an increased likelihood of a strong position in the private sector in the future. (Aldrich, 2011).

Question 15

Many commentators on Japan are asking what?

Answer 15

Whether strong links between the industry and its regulators could be partially to blame for the incident?

These links between regulators and regulatees are referred to as Amakudari

Suggestions have been made as to:
Complacency among regulators & a willing ignorance of malpractice in the industry.

Question 16

Nuclear energy is controlled by the ‘nuclear village’…what are the three actors?

Answer 16

1⃣ MITI’s Agency for Natural Resources and Energy

2⃣ LDP

3⃣ TEPCO

Question 17

What evidence is there of control by the ‘nuclear village’ and Amakudari processes?

Answer 17

The former head of ANRE took a position consulting TEPCO

Reports suggest that over 50 years, a number of high ranking METI (formerly MITI) officials took VP positions at TEPCO

Suggestions that TEPCO have funnelled $200,000 into the LDP

Question 18

Aldrich (2011) suggests however that despite this, Amakudari cannot explain the slow release of information post the Fukushima incident…why?

Answer 18

Clear evidence that high ranking politicians were kept out of the loop - including the former PM who became increasingly frustrated with TEPCO

TEPCOs resistance to using salt water to cool reactors fearing damage to machinery was not a result of institutional connections

Locating back-up generators in low lying areas was silly, but not a result of institutional links. When similar failures occurred after New Orleans - nobody criticised the government.

Question 19

If anything - commentators have suggested the disaster proved what for nuclear energy?

Answer 19

It proved the energy’s safety. Yes there was radiation leakage but the reactors managed to contain most of the potential radiation.

These plants are built with defence in mind and can be used to show the safety of 41 years of technology. This was evident in the Fukushima case.

Question 20

Rather than view these problems through the guise of Amakudari - Aldrich (2011) suggests we should look at what?

Answer 20

The institutions that government set up to promote nuclear energy

Question 21

How did government led institutions promote support for nuclear energy as a means of securing energy?

Answer 21

Since 1960s bureaucrats within METI (formerly MITI) have manipulated public opinion to promote nuclear energy and support their goal for energy security.

Invisible tax on electricity which funnels millions of yen into infrastructure to support communities hosting nuclear energy

Manipulating school curriculums to promote nuclear energy and reinforce its safety

Annual fairs exclusively for fishermen and farmers from areas hosting nuclear energy to ensure they have a market for their goods in light of nuclear contamination fears.

Question 22

Put simply. There is a big……..

Answer 22

CONFLICT OF INTEREST…..!

Question 23

How did the government and TEPCO go about siting nuclear plants?

Answer 23

They looked for communities where civil activism was less likely

Usually those areas which suffered a lack of economic development or the decline in their original economy.

Question 24

What has the public reaction to Fukushima Dai-ichi been?

Answer 24

TEPCO has promised $12,000 per house affected by the disaster but this seen as not dealing with the wider issues.

Widespread negative attitudes - 17,500 rallying recently in Tokyo and 15,000 in other similar protests against atomic plants

2011 polls show 41% of people oppose or want to reduce the number of nuclear plants - up from 29% in 2007

Question 25

Will the disaster change the governments commitment to Nuclear power?

Answer 25

Most likely not - especially since it has tied itself to the energy type more so since the 1970s oil crises.

It may seek to reduce the development of new plants in the short term as it tries to regain public support - but long term it is unlikely Japan will deviate from nuclear energy as it drives for energy independence so it isn’t tied to long contracts for energy sourced from politically unstable countries.

The resources ploughed into nuclear energy are considerable - it is most likely they will pursue the energy type no matter the cost

Question 26

Japan’s reliance on coal?

Answer 26

1950s - Japan drives for economic development post the war.

Japan’s empire could provide a more readily available coal base than was available at home and this supply was driven by increasing steel production in the post war years increasing the reliance on coal as an energy source in the 1950s

GDP begins to rise at roughly 10% per annum by the 1950s

Used in thermal energy production as the dominant source before being replaced by oil in the 1960s

With increasing coal usage came increasing problems of ill health - air pollution and and a number of pollution driven court cases highlighting negative public attitudes (Avenell, 2006)

Question 27

1960s Japan looks to oil…

Answer 27

1960s - oil liberalisation makes oil a cheaper energy source. Coal causing health problems and coal operations were streamlined. Oil becomes a better, cheaper energy source so imported.

This gives rise to an increase in oil consumption but this is imported at lesser costs…starting locally in Asia but imported more so from the ME moving in to the 1980s.

By early 1970s - oil based thermal energy accounted for nearly 70% of the nations power supply (Hays 2012)

Question 28

Impact of the 1970s oil crises?

Answer 28

Industry demand steadied out after the oil crises but commercial demand increased.

By 1975 the government was looking to stockpile a reserve of oil to protect it against further oil price shocks given Japan was at the mercy of the energy markets.

Japan also begins to look at diversifying its energy sources as a means of securing energy security.

The greater adoption of LNG and natural gas emerges with the e-emergence of coal - but environmental impacts are offset by better technologies (Imura and Schereurs, 2005)

Question 29

The US supports nuclear energy but allows the market to dictate its uptake - what approach has Japan taken?

Answer 29

A more hands on approach to promote the benefits, gain support and decrease negativity

Question 30

How many regional energy companies are there in Japan?

Why does this make sense?

Answer 30

9 regional energy companies - each holds a monopoly within each region in Japan.

From the point of view of MITI - this made sense as it facilitated Amakudari and ensured the most efficient energy supply

To the detriment of this structure- there is no incentive to innovate or overcome wider risk issues.

Question 31

The drive for nuclear energy came about from what?

Answer 31

String drive for government led EA
A drive for technological innovation
Centralisation of energy planning
Low levels of civil activism moving in to the 1970s

Question 32

Fukushima….Matanle (2011)

Answer 32

Earthquake at the pacific / North American plate boundary
Recorded at magnitude 9.0
Triggered a following tsunami - waves estimated at 17 m
Killing 15k + with thousands missing or injured
Carried an estimated 26.7 million tonnes of debris in its wake
Continuing problems of radiation leaked - originally not likened to Chernobyl but increasingly more so now
Estimated to take between 10-30 years to decommission the plant

Question 33

Lessons learnt

Matanle (2011)

Answer 33

Greater focus on CP which was overlooked largely in the wake of the Great Hanshin EQ and before
Redevelopment plans look to incorporate local ownership
Plans seek nationwide support
How attainable? Difficult to determine…top down control remains imbedded within Japan’s planning culture