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Bioenergetics > January Exam > Flashcards

January Exam Flashcards

0
Q

Compound

A

Molecule containing atoms joined together of more than one element

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1
Q

Molecule

A

Two or more atoms joined together

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2
Q

6 main elements

A

Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphate

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3
Q

Weight (N)

A

Mass x Force

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4
Q

Subatomic particles of an atom

A

Nucleus, neutrons, protons and electrons

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5
Q

Atomic number

A

Number of protons in the nucleus

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6
Q

Mass number

A

Sum of protons and neutrons

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7
Q

Outer shell of electrons

A

Valence shell

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8
Q

Free radical

A

A charged atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost shell

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9
Q

Ionic bond

A

Formed when atoms loose or gain and e- and a bond forms betwn oppositely charged ions

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10
Q

Covalent bonds

A

Weaker than ionic bonds and formed when atoms share electrons. Can be polar.

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11
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Form between water molecules due to the polar covalent bonding

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12
Q

Energy

A

The capacity to do work

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13
Q

Bioenergetics refers to

A

The transformation and exchange of energy within a living system

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14
Q

1st law of thermodynamics

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but simply changed from one form to another without being depleted

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15
Q

2nd law of thermodynamics

A

All the potential energy in a system degrades to the unusable form of kinetic or heat energy

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16
Q

Exergoinic reaction

A

Releases energy to the environment (delta negative)

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17
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

Absorbs energy (delta positive)

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18
Q

Synthesis

A

Anabolic, endergonic e.g. Condensation

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19
Q

Decomposition

A

Catabolic, exergonic e.g. Hydrolysis

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20
Q

Condensation

A

Yields water (anabolic)

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21
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Uses water (catabolic)

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22
Q

Oxidation

A

Loss of electrons

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23
Q

Reduction

A

gain of electrons

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24
Q

Respiration redox

A

C is oxidised. O is reduced

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25
Q

Dehydrogenase

A

Removes H

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26
Q

Oxidases

A

Removes O

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27
Q

Coenzymes

A

Temporary carriers of H and e-

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28
Q

NAD+

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidised= NAD+, reduced= NADH)

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29
Q

FAD

A

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (oxidised= FAD, reduced= FADH)

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30
Q

Creatine kinase

A

Regulates energy metabolism via hydrolysis reaction

ATP + Cr PCr + ADP + H+

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31
Q

Mass action effect

A

The effect of the concentration of chemicals in solution on the occurrence of a particular chemical reaction

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32
Q

Respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

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33
Q

Acids

A

Proton donors

Acid –> proton (H+) + anion (-ve charge)

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34
Q

Higher H+ conc

A

More acidic

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35
Q

Hydrochloric acid

A

HCl

Digestion

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36
Q

Carbonic acid

A

H2CO3

Chemical buffering

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37
Q

Citric acid

A

C6H8O7

Metabolic pathways

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38
Q

Strong acids

A

Dissociate irreversibly in water

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39
Q

Weak acids

A

Reach an equilibrium governed by the mass action effect

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40
Q

Base

A

Proton acceptor, releases OH-, forms a hydroxyl ion and a cation (+I’ve charge)

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41
Q

Bicarbonate

A

HCO3-

Blood

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42
Q

Ammonia

A

NH3

Protein metabolism

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43
Q

Concentration units

A

mmol.L-1 or mM

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44
Q

pH

A

A quantitative measure of acidity or alkalinity

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45
Q

pH of the body

A

7.4

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46
Q

pH of blood

A

7.35 - 7.45

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47
Q

pH of the CNS

A

> 7.0

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48
Q

pH of cytoplasm of active muscle

A

6.5

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49
Q

Buffering in the body

A

Chemical and physiological mechanisms acting in an integrated system to moderate changes in the concentration of pH

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50
Q

Chemical buffering

A

First line of defence
Occurs in the blood
Immediate response
Enzyme controlled

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51
Q

Equation of chemical blood buffering

A

H+ + HCO3 H2CO3 CO2 + H2O

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52
Q

Buffers in the body

A

Sodium bicarbonate in the blood, sodium phosphate in the cell, deoxygenated Haemoglobin in venous blood

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53
Q

Examples of physiological buffering in the body

A

Renal buffering and ventilators buffering

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54
Q

Renal buffering

A

Response is hours and days
Secretes NH3 and H+
Re absorbs alkali, chloride and bicarbonate

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55
Q

Ventilatory buffering

A

Changes CO2 conc

Faster than in kidneys and important in exercise

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56
Q

The integrated buffering system

A

Occurs in the blood and uses the pulmonary, renal and bicarbonate buffering systems

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57
Q

Alkalosis

A

Increases alkalinity occurring via hyperventilation, vomiting and overactive thyroid

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58
Q

Acidosis

A

Increased acidity via hypoventilation, diarrhoea, lactic acidosis of muscles, ketosis

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59
Q

Food

A

Chemical energy

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60
Q

Fuel

A

A compound from which chemical energy can be transformed into other forms

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61
Q

Glycogen

A

Stored in liver and muscles with H2O

Enough for 12 hours

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62
Q

Triacylglycerol

A

Stored in adipose tissues

Enough for 15 days

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63
Q

Energy uses in the body

A

Mechanical, chemical and transport

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64
Q

Potential energy

A

Stored energy

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65
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy of motion

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66
Q

Exergonic energy

A

Energy released

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67
Q

Endergonic energy

A

Energy absorbed

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68
Q

Gram calorie

A

The energy required to increase the temp of 1g of water by 1 degree C

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69
Q

kCal

A

Kilogram calorie

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70
Q

SI unit of energy

A

Joules

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71
Q

Joule J

A

The work done when 1N of force moves 1m

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72
Q

1kCal= ?J

A

4.184

73
Q

Direct calorimetry

A

Measures the heat liberated as food burns

74
Q

Heat of combustion

A

The total energy value of food measured

75
Q

Coefficient of digestibility

A

The ability of the body’s digestive process to extract the potential energy yield within food

76
Q

Atwater general factors

A

Values that estimate the net available energy to the body from food

77
Q

Dietary carbohydrate

A

4 kCal/g

78
Q

Dietary protein

A

4 kCal/g

79
Q

Dietary lipid

A

9 kCal/g

80
Q

Dietary alcohol

A

7 kCal/g

81
Q

Enzyme

A

A specific protein catalyst that accelerated the forward and reverse rates of chemical reactions without being consumed or changed in the reaction

82
Q

Fischer

A

Lock and key

83
Q

Koshland

A

Induced fit hypothesis

84
Q

Initial velocity

A

The rate of the initial forward substrate to product reaction

85
Q

Maximum velocity

A

The maximum rate at which substrate can be converted to product

86
Q

Michaelis constant (km)

A

Concentration of substrate required to produce 1/2 Vmax

87
Q

Coenzyme

A

Organic substances which assist with the work of enzymes e.g. Iron, zinc and b vitamins

88
Q

Alosteric enzymes

A

Positive and negative effectors of enzymes

89
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate contains an adenine, a ribose and 3 phosphate chains

90
Q

Typical ATP:ADP ratio

A

50:1

91
Q

Reciever donor cycle

A

Cyclical process between ADP –> fuel oxidation –> ATP –> energy requiring process –> ADP

92
Q

Cells major energy transforming activities

A

Extracting potential energy from food
Extracting from ATP for biological work
ATP resynthesis via energy from food

93
Q

ATP hydrolysis

A

Releases energy as phosphate bonds are broken down using water

94
Q

ATP hydrolysis catalysed by

A

ATPase

95
Q

ATP hydrolysis releases

A

7.3 kCal.mol-1

96
Q

ATP hydrolysis equation

A

ATP + H2O –> ADP + Pi

97
Q

ATP resynthesis

A

2ADP AMP + ATP

catalysed by adenylate kinase

98
Q

Store of ATP

A

80-100g
3mmol per kg muscle
2s worth

99
Q

ATP instant replenishment

A

Achieved by phosphocreatine PCr

100
Q

ATP resynthesis from PCr is catalysed by

A

Creatine kinase

101
Q

How much PCr cells store

A

6x more than ATP

Theoretically gone in 8-12s but provides a buffer whilst the long term energy pathways are getting going

102
Q

Stimulus of creatine kinase

A

Increased conc of ADP

103
Q

Products from the CK reaction activate

A

Enzymes of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation

104
Q

PCr shuffle

A

The relationship between resynthesis inside the mitochondrial inner membrane and the myofibril where contraction is occurring

105
Q

ADP access to the mitochondrial matrix is

A

Restricted

106
Q

High energy phosphates are transferred between the mitochondrion and myofibrils by the exchange between

A

Cr and PCr to then resynthesis ATP

107
Q

Homeostasis

A

The tendency to regulate internal conditions by a system of feedback controls to stabilise health and functioning regardless of changing external conditions

108
Q

Negative feedback loop

A

Stimulator–>

Receptor -> integrator -> effector -> response -> receptor

109
Q

Anti diuretic hormone

A

Vasopressin

From the pituitary

110
Q

Passive transport

A

Simple and facilitated diffusion, osmosis, filtration

111
Q

Active transport

A

Sodium potassium pumps, endo cytosis, exocytosis, phagocytosis, secondary active transport

112
Q

Membrane potential

A

-70mV

113
Q

Depolarisation occurs when

A

Na+ in

114
Q

Repolarisation occurs when

A

K+ out

115
Q

Glucose symport

A

Electrochemical gradient is used to transport 1 glucose for every 2 Na+ e.g. By Glut-1 and -2 in the intestines

116
Q

Insulin release from pancreatic beta cell

A 
Glucose in via glut-2
Glycolysis and respiration increase ATP:ADP ratio
K+ channel shuts
Depolarisation
Ca2+ channel opens and calcium moves in
Exocytosis of insulin occurs
117
Q

Motor neurone causing muscle contraction

A

Ach leaves neurone
Action potential moves down t tubules opening Ca2+ channels
Ca2+ move in and binds troponin
Actin binding occurs
Ca2+ channels shut and ATP used by Ca2+ pumps to restore conc

118
Q

Carbohydrate

A

CHO

Cn(H2O)n

119
Q

Extraction of energy from CHO in3 steps

A

Glycolysis
TcA cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

120
Q

Glycolysis

A

10 step oxidation of glucose in the cytoplasm

121
Q

Net result of glycolysis

A

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2H+

122
Q

Rate limiting steps of glycolysis

A

3 and 6.
3 is PFK
6 is NAD+

123
Q

Enzyme in step 1 of glycolysis

A

Hexokinase

124
Q

Enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis

A

Phosphofructokinase PFK

125
Q

In high oxygen and high NAD+ availability the pyruvate

A

Is used by pyruvate dehydrogenase and added to CoA to form acetylene coA which enters the TCA cycle.
NAD+ becomes NADH + H+ that goes to the ETC

126
Q

In low oxygen and low NAD+ avaibility the pyruvate

A

Lactate dehydrogenase turns it into lactate and NADH + H+ becomes NAD+ and goes to step 6 of glycolysis to maintain the glycolytic rate

127
Q

TCA cycle

A

Mitochondrial metric, occurs twice for 1 glucose molecule, 8 steps, cyclical

128
Q

TCA products per turn

A

3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1ATP, 2CO2

129
Q

TCA cycle starts with

A

Oxaloacetate and acetyl coA

130
Q

The NADH from the TCA cycle

A

Goes to the ETC

131
Q

Maintain muscle ATP occurs using

A

PCr system, glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation

132
Q

Types of fats

A

Neutral, compound, derived

133
Q

Neutral fat

A

Triaglycerides

134
Q

Compound fat

A

Phospholipid

135
Q

Derived lipids

A

Cholesterol

136
Q

Triglycerides

A

1 glycerol and 3 hydrocarbon chains

Sympathies isles in adipose via a condensation reaction

137
Q

Lipolysis

A

Breakdown of fats

138
Q

Lipoprotein lipase

A

Catalysed Lipolysis

139
Q

Hormone sensitive lipase

A

Regulated the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue by breaking off the first FA (HSL)

140
Q

Removal of glycerides is a

A

Hydrolysis reaction

141
Q

Glycerol diffuses…

A

Into the blood stream and is converted into glyceraldhyde 3-phosphate and enters step 6 of glycolysis

142
Q

Free fatty acids…

A

Bind to albumin which transports them for beta oxidatin

143
Q

Albumin

A

Transport protein that carries FFAs in LDL or HDL

144
Q

Bad density lipoproteins

A

LDL

145
Q

Beta oxidation

A

Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and removes carbon pairs from FFAs. FAD and NAD+ are reduced and take H to the ETC
Acyl coA becomes acetyl coA and enters the TCA

146
Q

1 glycerol yields

A

19 ATP

147
Q

18 C fatty acid yields

A

147 ATP

148
Q

16C fatty acid yields

A

130 ATP

149
Q

Entry of fatty acids into the TCA cycle

A

Can only occur if enough oxaloacetate is availed from step 1 of carb metabolism to combine with the acetyl co a from beta oxidation to form citrate and enter

150
Q

Gluconeogensis

A

Glycerol, lactate and certain a.a. –> glucose

Via the liver

151
Q

Cori cycle

A

2 lactate –> 2 pyruvate –> 1 glucose

152
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Synthesis of lipids from glucose and a.a. By the liver and adipose cells

153
Q

Protein functions

A

Structural proteins, transport, enzyme function, hormones

154
Q

Number of a.a.

A

20

155
Q

Number of essential a.a.

A

8

156
Q

a.a. Composed of

A

Amino group, carboxyl group, alpha carbon, organic side chain

157
Q

Peptide bonds

A

Consideration reactions between the carboxyl group of one and the amino group of another amino acid

158
Q

Primary protein structure

A

Amino acid sequence

159
Q

Secondary structure

A

Hydrogen bonds between the amino acids within the chain form alpha helixes and beta pleated sheets

160
Q

Tertiary protein structure

A

The attractions between helixes or pleated sheets

161
Q

Quaternary protein structure

A

Two or more polypeptide chains joining together

162
Q

Proteindenaturation

A

Loss of structure and biological activity as tertiary and quaternary structure is lost

163
Q

Deamination

A

The removal of nitrogen from amino acid molecules that can then enter various stages of the TCA cycle
Releases ammonia

164
Q

Ammonia is transported to the liver by

A

Alanine and glutamin and excreted by the urea cycle (ATP cost)

165
Q

Negative nitrogen balance

A

Net loss of muscle mass

166
Q

OILRIG

A

Oxidation is loss
Reduction is gain

Of electrons

167
Q

Components of cellular oxidation

A

Fuel, TCA cycle, coenzymes NAD/FAD, ETC and oxygen

168
Q

Cellular oxidation

A

Aimed at providing energy to resynthesis ATP in the presence of oxygen through the breakdown of CHO, lipid and protein

169
Q

Fuel broken down in

A

The mitochondrial matrix via TCA

170
Q

Coenzymes carry H to

A

The ETC where oxygen is the final electron acceptor

171
Q

Cells primary means of trapping chemical energy

A

Cellular oxidation >90% synth

172
Q

ETC

A

Inner mitochondrial matrix, 4 cytochromes

173
Q

NAD+ and FAD in the ETC

A

Carry 2 H each to the ETC from the TCA

174
Q

NADH + H+ reacts with cytochrome

A

1 and is oxidised as the cytochrome is reduced

NAD+ returns to the TCA to get more.mprod uses 3 ATP

175
Q

FADH2 reacts with cytochrome

A

2 and is oxidised as the cytochrome is reduced. Gives 2 ATP

176
Q

Electrons pass along the cytochromes as

A

One is reduced by accepting an electron and the previous one is oxidised

177
Q

In 3 of the 4 cytochromes free energy release of the e- is associated with

A

Proton pumping of H+ from the matrix to the intermembranouse space

178
Q

Creation of the gradient in the ETC

A

H+ accumulates outside the matrix and then flows down a conc gradient back into the matrix and releases enough energy to phosphorylate ADP to ATP

179
Q

C4 is oxidised by

A

Oxygen, the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain

180
Q

Oxygen avaibility and the ETC

A

C4 cannot be oxidised and ETC backs up
NADH + H+ / FADH2 accumulates
Lack of NAD+ means reduced TCA cycle

Bioenergetics (1 decks)

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