ITP Flashcards
1
Q
What is the awareness of one’s surrounding and of what is in one’s mind at a given moment?
A
Consciousness
2
Q
What refers to the alertness, or the extent to which a person is awake or sleep?
A
Wakefulness
3
Q
What refers to the monitoring of information from the environment and from one’s own thoughts?
A
Awareness
4
Q
What is a state of consciousness in which the eyes are closed, and the person is unresponsive?
A
Coma
5
Q
What is a bundle of nerves in the brainstem that are involved in the wakefulness and transition between wakefulness and sleep?
A
Reticular Activating System
6
Q
What is a state of minimal consciousness in which the eyes might be open, but the person is otherwise unresponsive?
A
Vegetative State
7
Q
What is the state in which a person shows signs of intentional behavior, but they cannot communicate?
A
Minimally Conscious
8
Q
What is a new diagnostic category that encompasses the variety of ways in which wakefulness and awareness might vary when compromised?
A
Disorders of Consciousness (DoCs)
9
Q
What is the state in which the experiences of knowing what we know is conscious, even if we cannot bring them into awareness?
A
Moderate Consciousness
10
Q
What is the state in which a person is fully awake, responsive, and aware of their surroundings?
A
Full Consciousness
11
Q
What is a heightened awareness of the present moment, of events in one’s environment, and events in one’s own mind?
A
Mindfulness
12
Q
What is the limited capacity to process information that is under conscious control?
A
Attention
13
Q
What is the ability to focus awareness on specific features in the environment while ignoring others?
A
Selective Attention
14
Q
What is the ability to filter out auditory stimuli and then to refocus attention when you hear your name?
A
Cocktail Party Effect
15
Q
What is the phenomenon by which we fail to notice unexpected objects in our surroundings?
A
Inattentional blindness
16
Q
What states that we do not notice potential distracters when a primary task consumes all of our attentional capacity?
A
Perceptual load model
17
Q
What is the ability to maintain focused awareness on a target or an idea?
A
Sustained Attention
18
Q
What refers to a wide variety of practices that people use to calm the mind, stabilize concentration, and enhance awareness of the present moment?
A
Meditation
19
Q
What is the state that is still active even in resting stage, but partially processes information from the outside world?
A
Sleeping
20
Q
What are variations in physiological processes that cycle within approximately 24-period?
A
Circadian Rhythms
21
Q
What are the quick movements of the eye that occur during sleep, thought to mark phases of dreaming?
A
Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
22
Q
What is a sleep state that has relatively few eye movements, with those that occur being slow?
A
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM)
23
Q
What is taking more than 20 minutes to fall asleep, having trouble staying asleep, and/or not feeling rested after a night’s sleep for 2 or more consecutive weeks?
A
Insomnia
24
Q
What occurs when a person gets out of bed during sleep and engages in activities that normally occur during wakefulness?
A
Sleepwalking
25
What is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, causing people to fall asleep at inopportune times?
Narcolepsy
26
What is characterized by brief pauses in breathing during sleep, causing disruption in the sleep cycle?
Sleep Apnea
27
What exists when a person sleeps more than 10 hours a day for 2 weeks or more, often with a strong urge to nap throughout the day?
Hypersomnia
28
What occurs when a person speaks incoherently and awakens suddenly in a terrible state of sleep?
Night Terrors
29
What are frightening or distressing dreams, often problematic for people with PTSD?
Nightmares
30
What are the succession of images, thoughts, and feelings we experience while asleep?
Dreams
31
What theory argues that conflicting impulses and drives are released as a visual compromise by the sleeping mind?
Psychoanalytic Theory
32
What is the dream that we unconsciously recall after waking up, representing the surface level of the dream?
Manifest Level
33
What is the deeper, unconscious level of a dream where the true meaning lies?
Latent Level
34
What theory argues that dreams are devoid of meaning and result from random brain activity?
Biological Theory
35
What refers to the amount of neural activation ranging from low to high?
Activation
36
What refers to whether stimulation is internal or external?
Input
37
What describes the mental state from logical (wakeful) to loose-illogical (dreaming)?
Mode
38
What model states that each state of consciousness occupies a unique place in a three-dimensional space?
Hobson’s Model of Consciousness
39
What theory suggests that standard processes used in waking life operate similarly during dreaming?
Cognitive Theory
40
What is a state of mind characterized by focused attention, suggestibility, and absorption?
Hypnosis
41
What are naturally occurring or synthesized substances that produce qualitative changes in conscious experience?
Psychoactive Drugs
42
What is the phenomenon where people acquire increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the desired effect?
Tolerance
43
What are the adverse effects people experience if they stop using a drug?
Withdrawal Symptoms
44
What are convincing sensory experiences that occur in the absence of an external stimulus?
Hallucinations
45
What results from habitual use or physical and psychological dependence on a substance?
Addiction
46
What is it called when an individual takes more of a drug than intended and tries to control their drug use but fails?
Compulsive Use
47
What are drugs that stimulate or intensify neural activity and bodily functions?
Stimulants
48
What are drugs that depress the central nervous system and bodily functions?
Depressants
49
What are drugs that change a person’s awareness of their surroundings?
Hallucinogens
50
Name different types of depressants according to the module.
Alcohol, Sedatives, and Opiods
51
Name different types of stimulants according to the module.
Caffeine, Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy (MDMA)
52
Name different types of hallucinogens according to the module.
Marijuana, and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide-25)
53
What is our ability to take in, solidify, store, and then use information?
Memory
54
What are the four steps in forming memories?
Encoding, Consolidation, Storage, Retrieval
55
What refers to the encoding of our sensory experiences?
Encoding
56
What are the two types of encoding?
Automatic Processing, and Effortful Processing
57
What type of processing happens with little effort or conscious attention?
Automatic Processing
58
What occurs when we carefully attend to and put conscious effort into remembering information?
Effortful Processing
59
What is a common way to encode information deeply, often involving schemes to help remember?
Mnemonic Device
60
What is the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying memory?
Consolidation
61
What is the retention of memory over time?
Storage
62
What are the three ways of organizing and storing memories?
Hierarchies, Schemas, Association Network
63
What involves organizing related information from the most specific feature to the most general?
Hierarchies
64
What are mental frameworks that develop from our experiences with particular objects or events?
Schemas
65
What is a chain of associations between related concepts, where each concept is referred to as a node?
Association Network
66
What is the recovery and use of information stored in memory?
Retrieval
67
What is the first step in moving from sensory experiences to processed memory?
Attention
68
What connects encoding and remembering, central to the levels-of-processing approach to memory?
Depth of Processing
69
What are the two types of depth of processing?
Structural processing, and Semantic processing
70
What can help us to encode and retrieve memories and may improve recall but not always accurately?
Emotion
71
What are the important structures for memory?
Amygdala and the hippocampus
72
What is involved in assigning emotional significance to events and crucial in encoding emotional experiences?
Amygdala
73
What is a special kind of emotional memory that forms a detailed snapshot of a major event?
Flashbulb memory
74
What are the three major types of memory?
Sensory memory, Short-term memory, and Long-term memory
75
What are the two types of sensory memory?
Iconic memory, and Echoic memory
76
What is a brief visual record left on the retina of the eye?
Iconic memory
77
What is the short-term retention of sounds?
Echoic memory
78
What temporarily stores a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long-term storage or forgotten?
Short-term memory
79
What is the typical capacity of short-term memory?
Between five and nine units of information
80
What is one of the best ways to increase short-term memory capacity?
Chunking
81
What is the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand?
Working memory
82
What are the three types of short-term memory?
Short-term memory capacity, chunking, and working memory
83
What are the four components of working memory according to Baddeley’s Model?
Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and phonological loop
84
What is the process of reciting or practicing material repeatedly?
Rehearsal
85
What is the tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position?
The Serial Position Effect
86
What has the capacity to store vast amounts of information for varying durations?
Long-term memory
87
What are the two types of long-term memory?
Implicit, and Explicit
88
What is also known as nondeclarative memory, based on prior experience and skills?
Implicit memory
89
What are the two types of implicit memory?
Procedural memory, and Priming
90
What is the knowledge we hold for almost any behavior or physical skill we have learned?
Procedural memory
91
What occurs when recall is improved by prior exposure to similar stimuli?
Priming
92
What is the conscious recall of facts and events, also known as non-declarative memory?
Explicit Memory
93
What are the two distinct kinds of explicit conscious memory?
Semantic memory, and Episodic memory
94
What is our memory for facts and knowledge, such as what we learn in school?
Semantic memory
95
What is our memory for events we have lived through, often autobiographical?
Episodic memory
96
What theory proposes that repeated firing of a neuron strengthens the synaptic connection?
Hebb theory
97
What is the frontmost region of the frontal lobes, important for attention and impulse control?
Prefrontal cortex
98
What treatment uses a combination of light stimulation and genetics to manipulate neuron activity?
Optogenetics
99
What are the six types of ways in which memory is dynamic and fallible?
Reconsolidation, Selection and divided attention, Eyewitness testimony, False memories, Recovered memories, and Suggestibility and misinformation
100
What happens when the reactivation of a memory weakens the original memory?
Reconsolidation
101
What exists when we are trying to focus on more than one activity at once?
Selective and divided attention
102
What can sometimes be the deciding evidence presented at a trial?
Eyewitness Testimony
103
What are memories for events that never happened but were suggested by someone?
False memories
104
What are supposedly real events encoded but not retrieved for a long time?
Recovered memories
105
What problem occurs when memories are implanted based on misleading information?
Suggestibility and misinformation
106
What occurs when memories degrade, decline, or die?
Forgetting
107
What occurs when other information competes with the information we are trying to recall?
Interference
108
What is the term for memories that are implanted in our minds based on leading questions?
Recovered memories
## Footnote
This phenomenon occurs when misleading information is incorporated into one's memory.
109
What is suggestibility and misinformation?
Occurs when memories degrade, decline, die.
## Footnote
This can lead to false memories.
110
What is the process called when information competes with what we are trying to recall?
Interference
## Footnote
This can result in forgetting.
111
What type of interference occurs when new information causes forgetting of old information?
Retroactive interference
112
What type of interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with new learning?
Proactive interference
113
What is absent-mindedness?
A form of forgetfulness that involves attention as well as memory.
114
What is blocking in memory terms?
The inability to retrieve some information that once was stored.
115
What does repression refer to in memory?
The active inhibition of the retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored.
116
What is amnesia?
When people forget due to injury or disease to the brain.
117
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to remember events and experiences that occur after an injury or the onset of a disease.
118
What is retrograde amnesia?
The inability to recall events or experiences that happened before the onset of the disease or injury.
119
What is learning in psychological terms?
An enduring change in behavior that occurs with experience.
120
What is conditioning?
The process by which a behavior becomes more likely due to association with events that occur during the organism’s environment.
121
What is association in learning?
Learning occurs when one object or situation is linked with another.
122
What is classical conditioning?
Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that elicits an automatic response.
123
What is a neutral stimulus?
An object or situation that does not lead to an automatic response when presented alone.
124
What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?
The natural, automatic, inborn reaction to a stimulus.
125
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
The environmental input that always produces the same unlearned, involuntary response.
126
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A previously neutral input that an organism learns to associate with the unconditioned stimulus.
127
What is a conditioned response?
A behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented with the conditioned stimulus.
128
What is stimulus generalization?
The extension of the association between the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus to similar stimuli.
129
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
The weakening and disappearance of a conditioned stimulus when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with it.
130
What is spontaneous recovery?
The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response.
131
What is operant conditioning?
The process of modifying behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior.
132
What does the law of effect state?
The consequence of a behavior increases (or decreases) the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
133
What is a reinforcer?
Any internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior.
134
What are the two kinds of reinforcers?
Primary reinforcer, and secondary reinforcer
135
What is a primary reinforcer?
An innate, unlearned reinforcer that satisfies biological needs.
136
What is a secondary reinforcer?
A learned reinforcer that is usually associated with primary reinforcers.
137
What is positive reinforcement?
The presentation of a stimulus after a behavior that increases how often that behavior will occur.
138
What is negative reinforcement?
The removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency of that behavior.
139
What is punishment?
Any stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior.
140
What is positive punishment?
The addition of a stimulus that decreases behavior.
141
What is negative punishment?
Decreases behavior by removing a desirable stimulus.
142
What are schedules of reinforcement?
Patterns of intermittent reinforcement distinguished by whether reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses or a certain amount of time has passed.
143
What does continuous reinforcement mean?
Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.
144
What is intermittent reinforcement?
Reinforcement that does not occur after every response.
145
What is a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule?
Reinforcement that follows a set number of responses.
146
What is a variable-ratio (VR) schedule?
The number of responses needed for reinforcement varies.
147
What is a fixed-interval (FI) schedule?
Reinforcement always follows the first response after a set amount of time.
148
What is a variable-interval (VI) schedule?
The first response is reinforced after time periods of different durations.
149
Who proposed the social learning theory?
Albert Bandura
150
What is observational learning?
Learning influenced by the behavior of others.
151
What is modeling?
Observational learning that involves imitating behaviors performed by others.
152
What are the four learning processes?
Imprinting, Imitation, Synaptic charge, and Experience
153
What is human language?
An open and symbolic communication system with rules of grammar.
154
What does syntax refer to?
The rules of arranging words and symbols in sentences.
155
What is protolanguage?
Very basic language used by early humans.
156
What is neural commitment?
The wiring of neural networks in the brain’s language centers.
157
What is cooing?
The first sounds humans make other than crying, consisting mostly of vowels.
158
What is babbling?
Sounds made by infants experimenting with phonemes, including consonants.
159
What are one-word utterances?
Single words like 'mama', 'dada', that occur around 12 months.
160
What are two-word utterances?
Phrases like 'my ball' that children put together around 18 months.
161
What is the sentence phase?
The stage when children begin speaking in fully grammatical sentences.
162
What is child-directed speech?
Changes in adult speech patterns when speaking to young children.
163
Who proposed the operant conditioning theory?
Skinner
164
What is the main assumption of the nativist theory?
We discover language rather than learn it.
165
What is the language acquisition device (LAD)?
An innate biologically based capacity to acquire language.
166
Who proposed the nativist theory?
Chomsky
167
What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis state?
Language shapes our thoughts and perceptions.
168
What is the linguistic determinism hypothesis?
Our language determines our way of thinking and perceptions.
169
What is cognition?
The mental process involved in acquiring, processing, and storing knowledge.
170
What is a mental representation?
A structure in the mind that stands for something else.
171
What is visual imagery?
Visual representations created by the brain after the original stimulus is no longer present.
172
What is mental rotation?
The process of imagining an object turning in three-dimensional space.
173
What is verbal representation?
Naming things and giving them labels.
174
What is a category in cognitive psychology?
Perceiving similar features in objects, ideas, or events.
175
What are prototypes?
The best-fitting examples of categories.
176
What is a concept?
The abstract knowledge and understanding we have of a category.
177
What is a concept hierarchy?
It allows us to know that certain concepts are related in a particular way.
178
What are heuristics?
Methods for making complex and uncertain decisions.
179
What is representativeness heuristics?
Estimating the probability of an event based on how typical it is of another event.
180
What are base rates?
How common something is in the population.
181
What is conjunction fallacy?
When people say that the combination of two events is more likely than either event alone.
182
What is availability heuristic?
Making decisions based on the ease with which estimates come to mind.
183
What is intelligence?
A set of cognitive skills that includes abstract thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.
184
What is fluid intelligence?
Raw mental ability and abstract reasoning applied to new problems.
185
What is crystallized intelligence?
Knowledge gained from experience and learning.
186
What is the G-factor theory?
A theory describing intelligence as a single general factor with specific components.
187
What is verbal intelligence?
The ability to analyze and perform language-based reasoning.
188
What is spatial intelligence?
The ability to solve spatial problems and visualize objects from different angles.
189
What is quantitative intelligence?
The ability to reason and solve problems using mathematical operations.
190
What is the multiple-factor theory of intelligence?
A theory that considers multiple distinct abilities of intelligence rather than just one.
191
What is the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Model of intelligence?
A hierarchical model integrating general intelligence with several broadly defined abilities.
192
What is general intelligence in Carroll’s model?
A level of intelligence similar to Spearman’s concept of g.
193
What is broad intelligence in Carroll’s model?
Includes abilities such as crystallized and fluid intelligence.
194
What is narrow intelligence in Carroll’s model?
Includes many distinct abilities.
195
What is Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?
Consists of analytic, creative, and practical intelligence.
196
What is analytic intelligence?
Involves judging, evaluating, and comparing information.
197
What is creative intelligence?
Involves generating fresh and useful ideas for solving problems.
198
What is practical intelligence?
The ability to solve everyday life problems efficiently.
199
What is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?
Argues that intelligence consists of at least eight distinct capacities.
200
What is linguistic intelligence?
The ability to learn, understand, and use language.
201
What is logical-mathematical intelligence?
The ability to analyze information and perform mathematical operations.
202
What is musical intelligence?
The ability to perform, compose, or appreciate music.
203
What is bodily-kinesthetic intelligence?
The ability to use one’s body to solve problems or create products.
204
What is spatial intelligence?
The ability to think about and solve problems in three-dimensional space.
205
What is interpersonal intelligence?
The ability to understand and work well with others.
206
What is intrapersonal intelligence?
The ability to understand and regulate one’s own behavior and feelings.
207
What is naturalistic intelligence?
The ability to recognize and understand plants and animals.
208
What is mental age?
The equivalent chronological age a child has reached based on performance on an IQ test.
209
What is the intelligence ratio or quotient (IQ)?
Mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100.
210
What is the Kaufman-Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC)?
The first IQ test guided by theories of intelligence such as fluid and crystallized intelligence.
211
What is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)-IV?
Includes scores on four dimensions: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
212
What is the Standford-Binet (SB) fifth edition?
Assesses fluid and crystallized intelligence along with other factors of general intelligence.
213
What is intellectual disability?
Significant limitation in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior starting before age 18.
214
What is Down Syndrome?
A condition characterized by intellectual disability due to trisomy 21.
215
What is Fragile X syndrome?
A genetic disorder that results in stunted cognitive development.
216
What is familial-cultural intellectual disability?
Intellectual disability caused by environmental deprivation without genetic involvement.
217
What is adaptive behavior?
How well a person adjusts to and copes with everyday life.
218
What is giftedness?
Lies at the high end of the intelligence spectrum.
219
What is a prodigy?
A young person extremely gifted in one area and at least average in intelligence.
220
What is a savant?
A condition where individuals with low overall intelligence show isolated areas of brilliance.
221
What is connectome?
The map of all neural networks in the human brain.
222
What is reaction range?
The genetically determined range within which a given trait may fall.
223
What are convergent thinking problems?
Problems with known solutions that can be reached by narrowing down possible answers.
224
What are divergent thinking problems?
Problems with no known solutions that require novel solutions.
225
What is an algorithm?
Step-by-step formulas or procedures for solving problems.
226
What is a Eureka insight?
A sudden solution that comes to mind in a flash.
227
What is required to break free of self-imposed conceptual constraints?
Thinking about a problem differently to solve it.
228
What is the term for the range within which an individual's trait, such as intelligence, may fall?
Reaction range
229
What type of problems have known solutions that can be reached by narrowing down a set of possible answers?
Convergent thinking problems
230
What are the problems called that have no known solutions and require novel solutions?
Divergent thinking problems
231
What is a step-by-step formula or procedure for solving problems called?
Algorithm
232
What is a sudden solution that comes to mind in a flash referred to as?
Eureka insight or insight solutions
233
What requires one to break free of self-imposed conceptual constraints and think about a problem differently?
Thinking outside the box
234
What is the inability to break out of a particular mindset to think about a problem from a fresh perspective?
Fixation
235
What is the tendency to continue using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past called?
Mental set
236
What is the term for the tendency to be blind to unusual uses of common, everyday things or procedures?
Functional fixedness
237
What is a thought or behavior that is both novel (original) and meaningful called?
Creativity
238
What involves discovering and defining a problem and then attempting to solve it?
Preparation
239
What is it called when one puts the problem aside for a while and works on something else?
Incubation
240
What is the term for a Eureka moment when the solution comes immediately to mind?
Insight
241
What is the process of confirming a solution even if it feels certain?
Elaboration-verification
242
What is the region of the frontal lobes that is active when a person is not engaged in specific behavior?
Default mode network
243
What is the urge to move toward one’s goals called?
Motivation
244
What are states of cellular or bodily deficiency that compel drives referred to as?
Needs
245
What occurs when our bodies are deficient in some internal need?
Drives
246
What are any external objects or events that motivate behavior called?
Incentives
247
What model describes the drive to reduce a depleted physiological state?
Drive reduction model
248
What is the process by which organisms maintain physiological equilibrium called?
Homeostasis
249
What is the ideal fixed setting of a particular physiological system called?
Set point
250
What model states that we function best when we are moderately aroused or energized?
Optimal arousal model
251
What law states that performance is best when we are optimally aroused?
Yerkes-Dodson Law
252
What model focuses on internal drive states with the biological purpose of survival and reproduction?
Evolutionary model
253
What model combines drives and incentives, ranging from basic physiological needs to psychological needs?
Hierarchical model
254
What is the lowest level of the hierarchy that includes needs for food, water, and oxygen?
Physiological needs
255
What level of the hierarchy includes physical security, stability, and protection from threats?
Safety needs
256
What level of the hierarchy includes the desire for friendship and belonging to a social group?
Love and belongingness
257
What level of the hierarchy includes the need to be liked and respected by others and oneself?
Need for esteem
258
What is the top level of the hierarchy that involves the realization of one’s potential?
Self-actualization
259
What involves an extreme fear of being overweight leading to severe food intake restriction?
Anorexia nervosa
260
What is characterized by binge eating and a lack of control, often followed by self-induced vomiting?
Bulimia nervosa
