Italy in 1914/15

Question 1

Reasons why neutralists were against joining war (8)

Answer 1

P - The Liberal government believed that if the war went badly, this could be extremely damaging politically to the Liberal government and the people may turn against them
R - most Catholics in Italy were pacifists and they didn’t wish to antagonise their Catholic neighbours (Austria-Hungary)
I - from the moderate-socialists perspective, it was an imperialist war in which the conscripts would be unwilling members of the working classes
M - Italy consisted of inept and unimaginative generals and earlier defeats showed that the army was in poor shape.
E - the war would be costly economically and Italy wasn’t prepared for war. This was seen when £8 million instead of £24 million was spent on preparations
S - There would be a lot of suffering at the expense of citizens and volunteers were of poor quality
- Luzzatti spoke of the situation as “War would lead to the destruction of lives, wealth, culture and civilisation’
- Moderate liberals in the government e.g Giolitti felt that it was unjustified for Italy to enter the war

Question 2

Explain why Italy entered the First World War In 1915 after refusing to intervene in 1914 (8)

Answer 2

• In 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia without consulting Italy in advance. This meant that under the terms of the Triple Alliance, Italy was under no formal obligation to offer support.
• in 1914 the Italian government also wanted to maintain good relations with Britain, not least because it supplied most of Italy’s coal
• Additionally those that supported the Triple Entente were cautious of antagonising their neighbour (Catholic Austria) who was on their border
• liberals were also worried that if they lost the war it would result in the collapse of a Liberal government
• The decision for war in 1915 was driven by domestic political considerations. Salandra hoped that a successful military campaign would consolidate his position as national leader and help him to outmanoeuvre Giolitti, which led to him and Sonnino signing the Treaty of London in 1915.
• Italy joined the European war diplomatically in 1915 for the promise of rewards such as receiving Trentino, Istria and other territories, since the interventionists recognised that neutrality would bring no gains after war
• Due to the press supporting nationalist views such as Corradini and D’Annunzio, who wanted to fight on the side of the Entente, views that war would be the last stage of Risorgimento became widespread
• Italy’s hesitation was also because of the problem it faced on who to support. If the Triple Entente were victorious, they would have little incentive to hand over the Austrian land Italy wanted (Trentino and Trieste) but if the central Powers won the war, they might seek to punish Italy for its ‘betrayal’ of the Triple Alliance. After Salandra and Sonnino Held secret negotiations with both sides, the promises laid out in the Treaty of London proved to be more attractive

Question 3

Explain the arguments for joining war (8)

Answer 3

P - A short war would strengthen the Liberal state
R - Catholic Italians sympathised with Catholic Austria
I - Syndicalists and anarchists wanted war as it would create instability that would lead to revolution
M - Joining the war could strengthen the military by them joining Alliances e.g Triple Entente
E - After the war Italy could gain war indemnities, such as the territories (Trentino etc) that were promised in the Treaty of London and they realised neutrality would bring no gains after the war
S - The press supported the views of nationalists e.g Il Popolo d’Italia and once the press wanted to enter the war so did the people. War would be the last stage in Risorgimento - bringing Italians together
- On The side of the Triple Entente, Irredentalists couldn’t bring themselves to side with Austria-Hungary which was home to Italian speakers
-German was also the growing power in Europe and fighting alongside them will give prestige to Italy

Question 4

Why was having Italy as an ally attractive for the entente Powers? (3)

Answer 4

• it would open another battlefront
• place additional demands on A-H who were fighting Russia
• Secure based in the Mediterranean for the allies to attack Turkey

This meant that Italy could drive a hard bargain to get her involved in the war

Question 5

Name an event of a nationalist campaign for Italy to join Allies

Answer 5

Gabriele D’Annunzio delivered inflammatory pro-war speeches to large audiences in Rome and Mussolini attracted a crowd of 30,000 in Milan.
These gatherings called for Italy’s immediate entry into the conflict, denounced a Giolitti and the neutralists as traitors and condemned the parliamentary system for ‘betraying’ them

Question 6

List the terms of the Treaty of London (5)

Answer 6

• On 26th April 1915 Italy agreed to enter the war on the side of the Entente by signing the Treaty of London. Italy was to receive:
• The South Tyrol
• Trentino
• Istria
• Trieste
• Much of Dalmatia

Question 7

When did Italy declare war on Austria-Hungary?

Answer 7

24th May 1915

Question 8

When does Italy declare war on Germany

Answer 8

July 1916

Question 9

What were the military problems for Italy pre-1915? (8)

Answer 9

• It would be hard for those living in poverty in Italy, such as in the South, to be enthusiastic about fighting for their country. The majority of the soldiers were in fact Southern peasant conscripts
• Most skilled workers were required to stay at home to produce war equipment
• There were poor rations, low pay and a lack of modern equipment which all hampered the soldiers’ morale
• Thousands were killed by cholera, typhus and simply frostbite.
• military expenditure had not been a priority for Daneo, the finance minister. He refused to give the war minister £24m that was needed
• the wars in Abyssinia and Libya highlighted shortcomings
• Conditions of service were poor and many of the conscripts would be from the working class and rural labourers and peasants
• The training was outdated and many of the commanders were inept and unimaginative in their campaign ideas
• Cadorna had, a short time previously, wanted Italy to fight against France (which was now its ally)

Question 10

How successful were the Italian armed forces ? (8)

Answer 10

• At the start of the war, General Cadorna launched an offensive along the whole front line and Italian armies gained some success almost everywhere
• The Battle of Caporetto was avenged at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in 1918
• There were no major sea battles but several successful hit and run actions against the Austrians
• only 58 aircraft and 91 pilots but they had considerable success against the Austrians
• the leading Ace Francesco Baracca shot down 34 enemy aircraft
• by 1918 they produced a highly regarded heavy bomber and fighter plane which played an important role at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto
• the Battle of Vittorio Veneto marked the final collapse of the Austrian armies on the Italian Front and 2 days later on 2nd November an armistice was signed at Padua
• There were also 260,000 Serbian soldiers and refugees brought to safety

Question 11

How unsuccessful were the Italian armed forces ?(8)

Answer 11

• soldiers had shown themselves to have low morale and to be lacking in resolve and fighting spirit
• Soldiers were badly led and inadequately equipped. They used out of date French aircraft
• Soldier conditions of service were poor and their training methods outdated. Volunteers that joined the army were generally of poor quality
• during 1915 the first 4 battles on a narrower sector along the Isonzo were fought but these offensives resulted in 250,000 casualties and very little gain
• 1916 5 battles ensued and Cadorna’s plans achieved little and Italian army suffered heavy casualties and major problems
• in October 1917 the Italian army cracked under a surprise Austro-German attack. Totally demoralised, thousands of soldiers threw away their weapons, deserted and made their way homewards
• Battle of Caporetto proved costly for the Italians. 300,000 Italian soldiers were taken prisoner, 40,000 were killed or wounded (PM resigned in humiliation)
• Several cruisers were sunk by German submarines and two battleships were destroyed in Italian ports by Italian traitors

Question 12

What were the political impacts of war on Italy ? (8)

Answer 12

• the government’s incompetent conduct reinforced the disillusionment many had with the political system
• Salandra used king’s emergency powers to take Italy to war almost secretively
• the weakness of wartime coalitions meant that policies during and after war failed to unite Italy and politicians failing to reconcile to it
• Giolitti was opposed to going to war and accused of defeatism - politically isolated in his own group
• There were those on the extreme left who condemned liberal government and encouraged political sabotage, widened political divisions and sowed seeds for the growth of Fascism
• Catholic’s and socialists during the war didn’t take part in government thus undermining it further
• As Italy became more authoritarian during WW1 this caused Mussolini to abandon his pacifist stance and set up the strongly pro-war paper Popolo d’Italia
• PM Orlando replaced PM Boselli after the Battle of Coporetto - creating greater instability

Question 13

What were the economic impacts of war on Italy ? (8)

Answer 13

• The war imposed great strains on the Italian economy and Italian society
• Italy improved greatly in developing its wartime armaments production and ended the war with more artillery than the British army and by building over 6500 aircraft in 1918 alone
• companies such as a Fiat received cheap
  Pans to re-equip factories and military contracts on favourable terms
• The industrialised North benefitted most from war finances and the gap with the still poverty-stricken south grew ever wider
• although a few firms made huge profits - industry generally became too dependent on wartime demand and faced problems when war ended abruptly in 1919
• to achieve maximum war production the government ran up large budgets deficits and borrowed heavily abroad, especially from Britain. Post war national debt stood at 85 billion lira
• value of the lira at the end of the war was only 1/4 of lira in 1914
• prices 4x higher in 1918 than before war

Question 14

What were the social impacts of war on Italy? (8)

Answer 14

• industrial workers and the factories were placed under military discipline with men no longer free to move jobs or to strike
• This and Price inflation running 25% ahead of wage increases and food shortages, built up great resentment along the urban workforce
• 1917 food riots in Turin had to be put down by the military whose actions led to some 50 deaths
• wartime discontent among industrial workers led to a great increase in membership of socialist trades unions and the socialist party
• in the countryside the most immediate impact was that 1/2 of the 5 million conscript army were peasants or rural labourers
• wartime inflation allowed for crippling peasant debt to be paid off so peasants enjoyed a new prosperity
• Half of the 5 million strong conscript army had been peasants or rural labourers and as a result of this exodus there were more women working on the land
• veterans as they returned home fuelled both the unrest in the industrial towns and the land hunger in the countryside

Question 15

What were the military impacts of war on Italy? (8)

Answer 15

• Italian forces suffered around 1.3 million casualties between 1915 and 1918
• At the Battle of Caporetto over 300,000 prisoners were taken
• General Luigi Cadorna blamed defeat on the cowardice of the troops and had several hundred of them shot.
• After the war the Battle of Caporetto was used by opponents of the regime as a reason to attack and criticise the liberal state
• under the new command of General Diaz, rations and facilities improved and discipline became less arbitrary
• Italian army mounted a full scale assault on its line at 1918, which led to a collapse in Austrian morale. Italians claimed a major victory as their armies swept on unopposed
• Special groups of commandoes - The Araiti - were formed and carried out daring raids behind enemy lines
• Disease was widespread. 650,000 dead, 947,000 wounded And 600,000 missing

Question 16

Explain why Italy was disappointed with the Paris Peace Settlement of 1919 (8)

Answer 16

• according to the Treaty of Saint Germain, Italy had expected gains in Dalmatia, Asia Minor and its alpine frontier, however these did not materialise. It’s claim to Fiume was rejected by its allies and it received none of the confiscated ex-German colonies
• Additionally the role of Orlando contributed to their disappointment as he failed to secure additional territory after making the mistake of raising Italian demands beyond what the other Allies leaders thought reasonable.
• Italy had suffered severe casualties and fatalities during the ‘White War’ and this left a bitter taste - therefore the Italians saw the Peace Settlements and their lack of acquired indemnities as further humiliation
• During The conference itself, whenever they realised the negotiations would follow Wilson’s 14 Points, Orlando and Sonnino walked out. This achieved nothing since Italy was unable to bargain from a position of strength
• Italy’s claims were based on the Treaty of London but the peace agreements were to be based upon Wilson’s 14 points, not secret treaties signed before the war. Italy hadn’t told Wilson what was contained in the Treaty of London and as a result they faced disappointment
• The Paris Peace conference and the peace terms were easily seen as the betrayal of the victory at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto and those whose blood had secured it.
• Nationalists felt that the 14,500 sqkm of Land gained was not enough and demanded that Italy should be more fully awarded
• Nationalists also felt that their country had been cheated and veterans saw themselves as saviours and therefore there was a ‘mutilated victory’ and the liberals were to blame.

Question 17

“Although Italy was victorious in the First World War, it gained little from the Peace Treaties in 1919.” To what extent do you agree?

Answer 17

To some extent, although Italy was victorious in the First World War, it gained little from the Peace Treaties in 1919. This essay will analyse how much Italy gained from the Paris Treaties in 1919 in comparison to the proposals made in the Treaty of London 1915, who was responsible for what Italy gained and the degree of success Italy had in WW1 that affected its gains post war.

• On the one hand, it could be argued that Italy gained little in terms of land. In the Treaty of London 1915, Italy had expected gains in Dalmatia, Asia Minor and its alpine frontier. These didn’t materialise. Italy also didn’t gain the Dodecanese Islands, its share German colonies or the port of Fiume as the USA and UK believed it was ‘vital’ to the economy of the new Yugoslav state.
• On the other hand, Italy did actually gain ‘Italia Irredenta’ in addition to good amount of land promised in the Treaty of London. Italy received the South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and Trieste. It also got more than it deserved, as 0.2 million German-speaking Austrians and 0.25 million Slavs now lived in Italy.
• The world had fundamentally changed between 1915 and 1919. The era of secret diplomacy and power land-grabbing was ideally over and Wilson’s 14 Points were supposed to be used to determine Europe’s future. This would involve the principle of self-determination being applied in peace negotiations - this is why Italy received no colonies.
• Italy’s claims were based on the Treaty of London but now, Peace agreements were to be based upon the 14 Points.
• Italy had also not told Wilson what was contained in the Treaty of London, and as far as he was concerned all diplomacy should be open, Frontiers should be along lines of nationality and Austria and Hungary should become separate nations. The fact that Italy gained regained Italia Irredenta was evidence that of self-determination not being applied evenly and Italy gained more from the Peace Treaties than bargained for.
• It could be argued that Orlando and his handling of the Peace Conference was the reason Italy gained little at the Paris Treaties. When it was clear that negotiations would follow Wilson’s 14 points, Orlando and Sonnino walked out. This achieved nothing and Italy had not been able to bargain from a position of strength.
• It was claimed that Orlando had failed to impress at the conference and did not present his case well
• the fact that Italy’s gains amounted to a mere 9000 square miles of territory was blamed upon Orlando and he was outclassed by other statesmen
• Nationalists argued that despite Italy’s success in war, they gained little. In 1915, Cadorna’s leadership was bold with Italy gaining some victories across their entire front line. There were no major sea battles but several successful hit and run actions against the Austrians. The leading Ace Francesco Baracca shot down 34 enemy aircraft and by 1918 they produced a highly regarded heavy bomber and fighter plane which played an important role at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The Battle of Vittorio Veneto marked the final collapse of the Austrian armies on the Italian Front. The small gains despite Italy’s sacrifices was seen as a ‘mutilated victory’.
• However, the main question asked by the Entente Powers was why Italy should make substantial gains given that Italy had a poor record during the war time in terms of military campaigns, coupled with the fact that it didn’t enter the war until 1915.
• In 1916 there were five more battles of the Isonzo and Cadorna’s offensives from the spring time onwards achieved little and brought heavy casualties.
• At the Battle of Caporetto, there were 300,000 Italian soldiers taken prisoner and 400,000 wounded or killed and 350,000 deserters. It was such an embarrassment that the PM resigned.
• Italy launched an offensive in June 1918 and fought the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, both which had to be fought with British and French support or else face failure.
• the Italian Army also found itself in a war of attrition on its Alpine border, where commanders measured progress by metres gained in territory and number of enemy killed
• During the first two years of the war, the Italian army only had one real success (capture of Gorizia) meanwhile the rest of the battles were fought with inadequate equipment and poor leadership.

Question 18

“The Italian war effort between 1915 and 1918 was successful.” To what extent would you agree with this statement?

Answer 18

To some extent the Italian war effort between 1915 and 1918 was successful. This essay analyse the successes of the Italian armed forces, economic successes and social successes in addition to their failures in order to explore all factors.

Military successes

• During 1915 an attack was launched by General Cadorna along the entire Italian frontline and they achieved success almost everywhere
• They only had 58 aircraft and 91 pilots however they had several successful operations against the Austro -Hungarians
• No major sea battles but several successful hit and run torpedo actions against the Austro-Hungarians
• The leading Ace Francesco Baracca Shot down 34 enemy aircraft
• In 1918 they developed a highly regarded heavy bomber and fighter plane that played important roles in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto
• Battle of Vittorio Veneto was a huge military and propaganda success, causing the collapse of the Austrian morale on Italian line. Armistice signed two days later on 2nd November in Padua

Military Failures

• The Battle of Caporetto was a huge failure for Italy’s forces, 300,000 prisoners taken, 40,000 dead or wounded
• Post-Battle of Caporetto, the General Cadorna blamed the defeat upon the cowardice of his men and had several hundred of them shot
• The soldiers often lacked morale and fighting spirit
• Soldiers badly led and their equipment was outdated, seen by their use of outdated French aircraft

Economic successes

• They improved greatly in developing their wartime armaments production and even had more artillery than the British by the end of the war
• Companies such as Fiat received cheap plans to re-equip their factories and military contracts with favourable terms
• Industrialised North benefitted the most from wartime finances and flourished from the wartime production

Economic problems

• Although a few firms made huge profits, industry generally became too reliant upon wartime demands and suffered consequences once war came to an abrupt end
• To maximise war production, the government ran up large budget deficits and borrowed extensively from Britain and USA. However this borrowing was not enough to cover the cost of war costs and post-war national debt stood at 85 billion lira
• the value of the lira slumped to 1/4 of what it was in 1914 and the price index, which was 100 in 1913 rose extensively towards the end of war
• Although The North benefitted from war production this only increased the North/South divide between the poverty stricken south further

Social Failures
- Industrial workers and factories were placed under military discipline and workers weren’t allowed to strike or change jobs
- This, in addition to price inflation running 25% ahead of workers wages caused discontent among the urban workforce
- In 1917 food riots in Turin broke out and had to be put down by the army, whose actions led to some 50 deaths
Political Failures
- The government’s incompetence during war only reinforced the disillusionment many already had with the government
- Salandra took Italy to war in 1915 almost secretively using the king’s emergency powers
- The weakness of wartime coalitions meant that any policies passed before and after war failed to unify the country and politicians failed to reconcile to it

In conclusion, I disagree with the statement. The military successes that Italy had were only small in comparison to those of the British or USA and when they had a successful military campaign (Battle of Vittorio Veneto) they had to be aided by British and French allies. Etc