Issues & Debates

Question 1

What is gender?

Answer 1

Gender is more than our biological sex, it is also expressed through socially and culturally learnt norms.

Question 2

Define Androcentric

Answer 2

Androcentric describes research centred on a male demographic of participants or perspective.

Question 3

Define gynocentric

Answer 3

Gynocentric is research centred on a female demographic of participants or perspective

Question 4

What determines socialisation in terms of gender?

Answer 4

Socialisation from early infancy is underpinned by social norms, values and expectations of behaviour that are gender specific.

Question 5

What is Alpha bias?

Answer 5

1. Alpha bias refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females, resulting in gender stereotypes being over-emphasised.
2. Research that finds gender differences is more likely to be published than research that does not.

Question 6

What is the Beta bias?

Answer 6

Beta bias theories have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences between males and females.

Question 7

Outline nomothetic laws of universality

Answer 7

Nomothetic laws of universality can ignore the effects of gender on how behaviours may differ between males and females as characteristics found in all genders are universal.

Question 8

What happens when characteristics vary within genders?

Answer 8

When characteristics vary within genders then it can be deemed as unique and from a personal participant level, the idiographic approach.

Question 9

Define culture

Answer 9

The values, ideas, customs and behavioural norms of a particular group or society.

Question 10

Individualistic cultures

Answer 10

Individualistic cultures value independence, autonomy and fulfilling one’s own goals - typical of Western societies.

Question 11

Collectivist cultures

Answer 11

Collectivism promotes inter-dependence, conformity and identifying as part of a group - typical of social hierarchy in Eastern societies.

Question 12

Cross-cultural research

Answer 12

The study of human behaviour between different cultures to identify similarities and differences.

Question 13

Purpose of cross-cultural research

Answer 13

It enables universal behaviours that are common to many cultures to be identified, as well as culturally specific behaviours, which are unique to a population.

Question 14

How does cultural bias occur

Answer 14

Psychological research may inherently privilege one particular worldview over those that emerge from other cultures, leading to issues of cultural bias.

Question 15

Define reductionism

Answer 15

Reductionism refers to the means of looking at the isolated parts of something when studying it, rather than the whole.

Question 16

Define holism

Answer 16

Holism explains complex phenomena (human behaviour) without compartmentalising them into smaller subunits, instead accepting a complex interaction and relationships between many smaller units.

Question 17

Difference between reductionism and holism in psychology

Answer 17

Reductionism often ignores the interactions between parts, whereas holism considers combining the influence of experience/culture /socialisation combined with nature, as seen in social psychology

Question 18

Outline the scientific nature of reductionism

Answer 18

Reductionism uses scientific methods such a PET scans and is a focus on function/cause of behaviour like neurotransmitters causing increased aggression.

Question 19

What ethical standards does modern research have to reach?

Answer 19

Today research with people in the UK has to meet the BPS code of Ethics & Conduct (2009) so people are safe and protected from mistreatment.

Question 20

Harm in ethics

Answer 20

Human participants should not be caused distress or harm in research where there could be an alternative, such as case studies or secondary data gathering methods.

Question 21

Explain the issues with earlier psychological research

Answer 21

Earlier psychological research (1960’s) did cause unnecessary distress to participants since the guidance was not enforced in the same way that it is now (Zimbardo, Milgram).

Question 22

What is researcher responsibility

Answer 22

Responsibility includes human participants having the right to withdraw themselves or their data from research they are involved in and provided appropriate debriefing.

Question 23

What is integrity?

Answer 23

Integrity means psychologists acting with honesty and fairness.

Question 24

What is competence?

Answer 24

Competence is the ability of the psychologist to carry out the research.

Question 25

Outline respect

Answer 25

Respect must be shown to participants so their needs are always meet, this involves issues around: privacy / confidentiality / informed and presumptive consent / minimising the impact of deception.

Question 26

What are the standards for animal research?

Answer 26

Animal research is governed by the Scientific Procedures Act (1986) statutory guidelines to follow so that research is conducted with consideration for the animals.

Question 27

Why are animal researchers given licenses?

Answer 27

Animals researchers are provided with licenses to ensure the animals are given good living conditions so they do not suffer and are well looked after.

Question 28

What is replacement (animal ethics)

Answer 28

Where possible, the use of animals should be replaced with other scientific techniques like, using cells in tissue culture or computer simulations.

Question 29

What is reduction (animal ethics)

Answer 29

The number of animals used in psychological research must be kept to a minimum.

Question 30

What is refinement (animal ethics)

Answer 30

Making sure the procedures animals are exposed to minimise physical and psychological harm and living conditions are appropriate, cages should be equipped with food, water and a 12 day light-dark cycle.

Question 31

What is Nature?

Answer 31

Nature refers to innate characteristics which humans are born with, such as genetics, hormones, and brain neurochemistry that affect the development of an individual and may cause clinical disorders.

Question 32

What is Nurture?

Answer 32

Nurture is the opposite of nature, involving external influences often experienced over an individual’s lifetime, for example pre-birth disease and diet of the mother, or post-birth, the learning of physical behaviour by observation of role models in the environment.

Question 33

Why are psychologists interested in the role of nature and nurture in psychology?

Answer 33

To discover the source of behaviours to establish suitable treatment strategies, modify behaviour, and improve society and the lives of individuals.

Question 34

Can nature and nurture combine?

Answer 34

In some cases, a combination of both factors is involved, this epigenetic process can be seen when a specific gene may provide a genetic predisposition towards disorders like schizophrenia (Sz) which are activated and switched on by environmental factors like recreational drug use.

Question 35

Social psychology application

Answer 35

To reduce anti-social behaviour such as football hooliganism.

Question 36

Cognitive psychology application

Answer 36

To assess the extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable enough to be used in court as evidence

Question 37

Criminal psychology application

Answer 37

To assess the extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable enough to be used in court as evidence

Question 38

Learning Theories application

Answer 38

To assess if the influence of role models and celebrities is something that causes eating disorders.

Question 39

Clinical psychology application

Answer 39

To assess if the influence of role models and celebrities is something that causes eating disorders.

Question 40

Biological psychology application

Answer 40

To evaluate if aggression is caused by nature or nurture

Question 41

How has psychology evolved over time?

Answer 41

Psychology has developed over time from a philosophical to a scientific discipline, with the advent of technology and human genome sequencing having a significant influence on psychological understanding.

Question 42

Outline changes in the psychological field over time

Answer 42

The psychological field has moved away from speculation and theoretical ideas, toward an objective and empirical scientific approach.

Question 43

Gender differences in psychology

Answer 43

Although most early psychologists were men, now most practising psychologists, including the presidents of the most important psychological organisations like the APA, are women.

Question 44

Areas of psychology that lack development

Answer 44

Some areas of psychology have developed to a lesser extent, although the founder of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories created a new approach to understanding the human psyche, such theories remain limited by falsifiability and scientific credibility.

Question 45

What are practical issues?

Answer 45

Practical issues are the methodological choices researchers make when designing their research.

Question 46

Outline laboratory experiments

Answer 46

Laboratory experimental procedures with highly controlled extraneous variables mean a causal relationship between an IV and an operationalised quantitative DV can be measured.

Question 47

Why do psychologists need to consider participant samples?

Answer 47

To ensure that the studies are representative of the wider population, particularly generalisability of animals.

Question 48

What does the sampling method depend on?

Answer 48

The sampling method, be it random, opportunity etc will depend on the researcher’s access to the target population.

Question 49

Deciding what to test

Answer 49

Researchers need to decide whether they are going to explore a topic descriptively or test a hypothesis.

Question 50

How does the method of testing determine the data collection?

Answer 50

It will determine if they are going to collect quantitative data (numerical units) or qualitative data (descriptive words) to test their aims.

Question 51

How to avoid researcher bias

Answer 51

To avoid researcher bias, the researchers can plan for single or double blind procedures if this can be met in the implementation of the study.

Question 52

Criteria for psychology to be scientific

Answer 52

In order for psychology to be considered scientific it must be able to produce hypotheses that are falsifiable.

Question 53

Karl Popper: scientific rigour

Answer 53

Continually testing to disprove a theory, rather than ‘positivism’ (giving supporting research).