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A level Edexcel Psychology Paper 2 > Issues & Debates > Flashcards

Issues & Debates Flashcards

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1
Q

What is gender?

A

Gender is more than our biological sex, it is also expressed through socially and culturally learnt norms.

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2
Q

Define Androcentric

A

Androcentric describes research centred on a male demographic of participants or perspective.

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3
Q

Define gynocentric

A

Gynocentric is research centred on a female demographic of participants or perspective

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4
Q

What determines socialisation in terms of gender?

A

Socialisation from early infancy is underpinned by social norms, values and expectations of behaviour that are gender specific.

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5
Q

What is Alpha bias?

A
  1. Alpha bias refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females, resulting in gender stereotypes being over-emphasised.
  2. Research that finds gender differences is more likely to be published than research that does not.
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6
Q

What is the Beta bias?

A

Beta bias theories have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences between males and females.

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7
Q

Outline nomothetic laws of universality

A

Nomothetic laws of universality can ignore the effects of gender on how behaviours may differ between males and females as characteristics found in all genders are universal.

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8
Q

What happens when characteristics vary within genders?

A

When characteristics vary within genders then it can be deemed as unique and from a personal participant level, the idiographic approach.

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9
Q

Define culture

A

The values, ideas, customs and behavioural norms of a particular group or society.

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10
Q

Individualistic cultures

A

Individualistic cultures value independence, autonomy and fulfilling one’s own goals - typical of Western societies.

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11
Q

Collectivist cultures

A

Collectivism promotes inter-dependence, conformity and identifying as part of a group - typical of social hierarchy in Eastern societies.

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12
Q

Cross-cultural research

A

The study of human behaviour between different cultures to identify similarities and differences.

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13
Q

Purpose of cross-cultural research

A

It enables universal behaviours that are common to many cultures to be identified, as well as culturally specific behaviours, which are unique to a population.

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14
Q

How does cultural bias occur

A

Psychological research may inherently privilege one particular worldview over those that emerge from other cultures, leading to issues of cultural bias.

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15
Q

Define reductionism

A

Reductionism refers to the means of looking at the isolated parts of something when studying it, rather than the whole.

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16
Q

Define holism

A

Holism explains complex phenomena (human behaviour) without compartmentalising them into smaller subunits, instead accepting a complex interaction and relationships between many smaller units.

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17
Q

Difference between reductionism and holism in psychology

A

Reductionism often ignores the interactions between parts, whereas holism considers combining the influence of experience/culture /socialisation combined with nature, as seen in social psychology

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18
Q

Outline the scientific nature of reductionism

A

Reductionism uses scientific methods such a PET scans and is a focus on function/cause of behaviour like neurotransmitters causing increased aggression.

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19
Q

What ethical standards does modern research have to reach?

A

Today research with people in the UK has to meet the BPS code of Ethics & Conduct (2009) so people are safe and protected from mistreatment.

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20
Q

Harm in ethics

A

Human participants should not be caused distress or harm in research where there could be an alternative, such as case studies or secondary data gathering methods.

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21
Q

Explain the issues with earlier psychological research

A

Earlier psychological research (1960’s) did cause unnecessary distress to participants since the guidance was not enforced in the same way that it is now (Zimbardo, Milgram).

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22
Q

What is researcher responsibility

A

Responsibility includes human participants having the right to withdraw themselves or their data from research they are involved in and provided appropriate debriefing.

23
Q

What is integrity?

A

Integrity means psychologists acting with honesty and fairness.

24
Q

What is competence?

A

Competence is the ability of the psychologist to carry out the research.

25
Q

Outline respect

A

Respect must be shown to participants so their needs are always meet, this involves issues around: privacy / confidentiality / informed and presumptive consent / minimising the impact of deception.

26
Q

What are the standards for animal research?

A

Animal research is governed by the Scientific Procedures Act (1986) statutory guidelines to follow so that research is conducted with consideration for the animals.

27
Q

Why are animal researchers given licenses?

A

Animals researchers are provided with licenses to ensure the animals are given good living conditions so they do not suffer and are well looked after.

28
Q

What is replacement (animal ethics)

A

Where possible, the use of animals should be replaced with other scientific techniques like, using cells in tissue culture or computer simulations.

29
Q

What is reduction (animal ethics)

A

The number of animals used in psychological research must be kept to a minimum.

30
Q

What is refinement (animal ethics)

A

Making sure the procedures animals are exposed to minimise physical and psychological harm and living conditions are appropriate, cages should be equipped with food, water and a 12 day light-dark cycle.

31
Q

What is Nature?

A

Nature refers to innate characteristics which humans are born with, such as genetics, hormones, and brain neurochemistry that affect the development of an individual and may cause clinical disorders.

32
Q

What is Nurture?

A

Nurture is the opposite of nature, involving external influences often experienced over an individual’s lifetime, for example pre-birth disease and diet of the mother, or post-birth, the learning of physical behaviour by observation of role models in the environment.

33
Q

Why are psychologists interested in the role of nature and nurture in psychology?

A

To discover the source of behaviours to establish suitable treatment strategies, modify behaviour, and improve society and the lives of individuals.

34
Q

Can nature and nurture combine?

A

In some cases, a combination of both factors is involved, this epigenetic process can be seen when a specific gene may provide a genetic predisposition towards disorders like schizophrenia (Sz) which are activated and switched on by environmental factors like recreational drug use.

35
Q

Social psychology application

A

To reduce anti-social behaviour such as football hooliganism.

36
Q

Cognitive psychology application

A

To assess the extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable enough to be used in court as evidence

37
Q

Criminal psychology application

A

To assess the extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable enough to be used in court as evidence

38
Q

Learning Theories application

A

To assess if the influence of role models and celebrities is something that causes eating disorders.

39
Q

Clinical psychology application

A

To assess if the influence of role models and celebrities is something that causes eating disorders.

40
Q

Biological psychology application

A

To evaluate if aggression is caused by nature or nurture

41
Q

How has psychology evolved over time?

A

Psychology has developed over time from a philosophical to a scientific discipline, with the advent of technology and human genome sequencing having a significant influence on psychological understanding.

42
Q

Outline changes in the psychological field over time

A

The psychological field has moved away from speculation and theoretical ideas, toward an objective and empirical scientific approach.

43
Q

Gender differences in psychology

A

Although most early psychologists were men, now most practising psychologists, including the presidents of the most important psychological organisations like the APA, are women.

44
Q

Areas of psychology that lack development

A

Some areas of psychology have developed to a lesser extent, although the founder of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories created a new approach to understanding the human psyche, such theories remain limited by falsifiability and scientific credibility.

45
Q

What are practical issues?

A

Practical issues are the methodological choices researchers make when designing their research.

46
Q

Outline laboratory experiments

A

Laboratory experimental procedures with highly controlled extraneous variables mean a causal relationship between an IV and an operationalised quantitative DV can be measured.

47
Q

Why do psychologists need to consider participant samples?

A

To ensure that the studies are representative of the wider population, particularly generalisability of animals.

48
Q

What does the sampling method depend on?

A

The sampling method, be it random, opportunity etc will depend on the researcher’s access to the target population.

49
Q

Deciding what to test

A

Researchers need to decide whether they are going to explore a topic descriptively or test a hypothesis.

50
Q

How does the method of testing determine the data collection?

A

It will determine if they are going to collect quantitative data (numerical units) or qualitative data (descriptive words) to test their aims.

51
Q

How to avoid researcher bias

A

To avoid researcher bias, the researchers can plan for single or double blind procedures if this can be met in the implementation of the study.

52
Q

Criteria for psychology to be scientific

A

In order for psychology to be considered scientific it must be able to produce hypotheses that are falsifiable.

53
Q

Karl Popper: scientific rigour

A

Continually testing to disprove a theory, rather than ‘positivism’ (giving supporting research).

54
Q
A

A level Edexcel Psychology Paper 2 (4 decks)

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