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Psychology - A Level > Issues and Debates Finish Socail Sensitive > Flashcards

Issues and Debates Finish Socail Sensitive Flashcards

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1
Q

Universality

A

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that can be applied to everyone, everywhere at any time

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2
Q

Gender Bias

A

A psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women

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3
Q

Androcentrism

A

Male-centred. When normal behaviour is judges according to the male standard (usually female behaviour may been considered abnormal when this occurs)

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4
Q

Alpha Bias

A

Psychological theories that suggest there is a real and enduring difference between men and women. They may enhance or undervalue either sex.

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5
Q

Beta Bias

A

Theories they ignore or minimise differences between the sexes

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6
Q

Give one example of Alpha Bias in psychology

A

Freud’s theory on the Oedipus and Electra complex. He states boys fear castration which leads them to have a strong bond with their father. Whereas girls have a greater conflict before identifying with their mothers, meaning they’re not as moral as boys.

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7
Q

Give an example of Beta Bias in psychology

A

Zimbardo’s study was bias towards men as he studied white, male students however the findings were applied to both genders, meaning females were disregarded.

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8
Q

Give an example of Androcentrism in psychology

A

PMS may trivialise women as general female emotion is considered a disorder whereas male anger is seen as a rational response to external pressures.

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9
Q

Give 2 implications of gender bias

A
  • Creates misleading assumptions about women providing scientific credence to discriminate against women
  • Not as many women are appointed at senior research meaning female concerns aren’t reflected in the method. Psychology may supposed institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research.
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10
Q

How do you combat gender bias

A

Modern researchers mention their opinion and personal bias in their research as a critical aspect. This is reflexivity is an important development to shape future research.

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11
Q

Discuss the essentialist perspective

A

Essentialism regards the gender difference in question is inevitable (fixed) in nature. It creates a double standard as some behaviour is viewed from a male or a female perspective. In the past some arguments were politically motivated and disguised and scientific facts.

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12
Q

What was Judith Worrell’s criteria to avoid gender bias

A

Women should be
• Studied in real life context
• Participate in research
• Examined rather than compared to men

Greater emphasis should be put on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data

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13
Q

Define culture bias

A

The tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of your own culture

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14
Q

Define ethnocentrism

A

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of your own culture. It can lead to discrimination

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15
Q

Define cultural relativism

A

The idea that the norms and values, ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts

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16
Q

Define an emic approach

A

Studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to that culture

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17
Q

Define an etic approach

A

Studying behaviour across many cultures in order to find universal human behaviours

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18
Q

What are culture bound syndromes

A

Groups of syndromes classified as treatable illnesses in certain cultures but are not recognised in others

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19
Q

Define imposed etic

A

A test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain behaviour in another culture

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20
Q

Define research tradition

A

The familiarity a certain culture has with taking part in psychological investigations

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21
Q

Define an individualist culture

A

Refers to Western countries (eg US) that are thought to be more independent

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22
Q

Define a collectivist culture

A

Refers to cultures (eg China) that are said to be more conformist and group-orientated

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23
Q

Discuss Ainsworth’s Strange Situations in terms of cultural bias

A

Ainsworth reflected the norms of American culture and when findings were then applied to many cultures, this was ethnocentrism. Her study was affected by cultural relativism as her results can only be applied in the US but she took an etic approach to investigate the differences between culture but she should have adopted an emic approach.

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24
Q

What is the difference between individualist and collectivist cultures

A

Individualist cultures is associated with Western counties who value personal freedom and independence whereas collectivist cultures, associated with the East place emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group

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25
Q

Discuss cultural relativism V universality

A

Ekman’s research suggests basic facial expressions for emotions are universal

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26
Q

Name two benefits of conducting cross-cultural research

A
  • It challenges Western ways of thinking and viewing the world. It counters scientific racism
  • It also means psychologists are liked to draw conclusions win higher validity.
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27
Q

Define free will

A

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces. It argues we use personal agency to reach self actualisation

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28
Q

Define hard determinism

A

It implies free will is impossible as our behaviour is always caused by internal and externals events beyond out control

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29
Q

Define soft determinism

A

Events and human behaviour have causes but it can also be determined by our conscious choices

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30
Q

Define biological determinism

A

The belief behaviour is caused by biological influences that we can’t control

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31
Q

Define environmental determination

A

The belief behaviour is caused by features of the environment we can’t control

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32
Q

Define psychic determinism

A

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflict we can’t control

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33
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting free will in psychology

A

The Humanistic Approach supports free will as it is central to Roger’s client orientated therapy. It suggests we each have our own experience.

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34
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting hard determinism in psychology

A

Sigmund Freud supports this as he argues our behaviour is determined by our unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood

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35
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting soft determinism in psychology

A

The Cognitive Approach supports this as it suggests we have rational over processing information through cognitive processes.

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36
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting biological determinism in psychology

A

The Biological Approach supports this as the autonomic nervous system control physiological and neurological processes

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37
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting psychic determinism in psychology

A

Sigmund Freud supports this as he believed out behaviour was determined by childhood experiences which we can’t control.

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38
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting environmental determinism in psychology

A

Skinner supports his as he argued behaviour is a result of conditioning. He believed ‘choice’ is the just sum of reinforcement.

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39
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the idea of free will

A

+ Has face validity and makes cognitive sense as people who have an internal locus of control are at less risk of depression

  • It is proven activity in the brain makes choices 10 seconds before we are conscious of it
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40
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the idea of hard determinism

A

+ It is consistent with science (the biological approach) which increase the value of prediction and control

  • It is not consistent with the legal system and would not work well within society
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41
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the idea of soft determinism

A

+ People feel more comfortable applying this to human behaviour as it fits with our legal system

  • It is more difficult to study as it isn’t specific
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42
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the idea of biological determinism

A

+ Supported by twin studies and proven by the fact mental illness can be genetic eg. OCD

  • It is not consistent with the legal system and can lead to thoughts in eugenics
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43
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the idea of environmental determinism

A

+ Applied clearly in the legal system, school system and through reinforcement

  • Ignores the role of genetic factors
44
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the idea of psychic determinism

A

+ Supported by The Psychodynamic Approach as Sigmund Freud proposed this idea

  • It is not consistent with the legal system
45
Q

Define the ideographic approach

A

It focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour rather than formulating general laws

46
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting the idiographic approach in psychology

A

The humanistic approach focuses on the self. For example Maslow’s hierarchy helps the individual reach self actualisation

47
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the idiographic approach

A

+ It produces rich, depth qualitative data providing a complete global account of the individual

  • Meaningful generalisations can’t be made because case studies are too specific
48
Q

Define the nomothetic approach

A

Attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws

49
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting the nomothetic approach in psychology

A

The Biological Approach conducts brain scans in order to make generalisations about localisation and lateralisation

50
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the nomothetic approach

A

+ Conditions are standardised meaning the tests are scientific meaning they’re more likely to be valid

  • Accused if losing the whole person as subjective experience is ignored
51
Q

What is socially sensitive research

A

Studies in which there are potential consequences or implications either directly for the participants or for the class of individuals represented by the findings

52
Q

What did Sieber and Stanley identify as concerns to be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research

A
  • Implications - Wider effects, some studies can be seen as giving scientific credence to discriminate
  • Uses/Political Policy - Wrong purposes
  • The validity of the research
53
Q

Discuss Bowlby in terms of socially sensitive research. Outline the pros and cons of the research being conducted

A

Bowlby’s maternal deprivation study helped us have an understanding of the importance of a mother-child relationship. However, the results placed the blame on bad mothering and forced them to stay at home as a result of this

54
Q

What does PIDC stand for? How can you prevent each from occurring?

A

Psychological harm (counselling, debriefing, right to withdraw)
Informed consent (3 types of consent)
Deception (debriefing, consent)
Confidentiality (anonymity)

55
Q

What are the three types of consent when informed consent can’t be gained

A

1) Prior general
2) Retrospective
3) Presumptive

56
Q

Define nature

A

It was proposed by nativists - now the biological approach suggesting human characteristics are innate as a result of heredity

57
Q

Define heredity

A

The genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another

58
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting the nature in psychology

A

The Biological Approach has heritability coefficient between 0-1 to indicate the extent which a characteristic is genetic

59
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the nature debate

A

+

  • This is an extreme determinist stance which proposes eugenics.
60
Q

Define nurture

A

Argued by empiricist - now the behaviourist approach. It out behaviour is acquired through the environment

61
Q

Give an example of a topic supporting the nurture debate in psychology

A

The behaviourist approach argues we learn behaviour though conditioning and reinforcement.

62
Q

Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the nurture debate

A

+ Behaviour can be changed and influenced by the environment meaning if someone is displaying a bad behaviour it can be fixed. This is useful when in therapy

  • Could lead a controlling society that manipulates its citizens using these techniques
63
Q

Define the interactionist approach

A

The idea that nature and nurture are inseparable due to a strong link. Researchers study how they interact with each other.

64
Q

Give an example of the interactionist approach in psychology

A

McCarthy and Scarr propose gene-environment interaction. This is due to: passive, evocative and active interaction

65
Q

Define each gene-environment interactions Scarr and McCarthy proposed

A

Passive: the parents gene influence the way they treat their children

Evocative: child’s genes shape the environment which they grow up in

Active: child creates its own environment

66
Q

Define epigenetics

A

A change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code. It happens due to interaction with the environment, leaving marks on our DNA

67
Q

Define constructivism

A

The notion that people create their own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature

68
Q

Define holism

A

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts

69
Q

Give two arguments for holism

A

+ Some aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context. For example, conformity to social roles and de-individuation in Zimbardos study
+ Provides a more complete understanding of behaviour

70
Q

Give two arguments against holism

A
  • Can’t rigorously test in a scientific way. Usually it lacks empirical evidence and is seen as a lot of loose concepts. Eg. The Humanistic Approach
  • Difficult to establish how much individual factors contribute to behaviours
71
Q

Define reductionism

A

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts

72
Q

Give two arguments for reductionism

A

+ It’s scientific as variables are operationalised meaning results are reliable. It makes it easier to conduct experiments and observations by establishing behavioural categories
+ It gives psychology scientific credibility

73
Q

Give two arguments against reductionism

A
  • It oversimplifies complex phenomena leading to loss of validity. It doesn’t analyse within social context meaning we can’t find out why things occur.
  • Different theories of cognitive functioning haven’t been combined meaning you cant study the full photo
74
Q

Define biological reductionism

A

A form of reductionism that explains social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological level (genes, hormones)

75
Q

Define environmental reductionism

A

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have all been learnt through experience

76
Q

Explain the levels of psychology using OCD

A

Social-cultural context: odd repetitive hand washing
Psychological level: the experience of having obsessive thoughts
Physical level: the movement of washing hands
Physiological level: hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia
Neurochemical level: underproduction if serotonin

77
Q

Define idiographic approach

A

An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour rather than formulating general laws

78
Q

Define nomothetic approach

A

An approach to research that studies human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws

79
Q

Name three methods the idiographic approach is associated with

A

Qualitative data
Case studies
Unstructured interviews

80
Q

Name two approaches associated with the idiographic approach

A

The Humanistic Approach

The Psychodynamic Approach

81
Q

Name 2 approaches associated with the nomothetic approach

A

The Behaviourist Approach

The Cognitive Approach

Or The Biological Approach

82
Q

Give three arguments for the idiographic approach

A

+ It produces in depth, detailed global account of the individual (qualitative)
+ It is supported by the humanistic approach eg. Maslow and Rodgers
+ A single case may generate hypotheses for further study

83
Q

Give two arguments against the idiographic approach

A
  • Meaningful generalisations can’t be made without further examples as there’s no adequate baseline to compare behaviour
  • Methods are less scientific and conclusions are subjective, open to bias
84
Q

Give three arguments for the nomothetic approach

A

+ Tends to be more scientific as it’s tested under standardised conditions
+ It has helped established the norms of typical behaviour to help diagnose irregular
+ Supported by the Biological approach

85
Q

Give two arguments against the nomothetic approach

A
  • It is accused of losing the whole person within psychology as the subjective experience is ignored meaning you cant relate it to people
  • It overlooks the richness of human behaviour
86
Q

Define reliability

A

How consistent findings are from an investigation are meaning you could repeat it and get the same findings

87
Q

Explain the two methods of testing reliability

A

1) Test retest - Give the same test and assets the same person on two separate occasions. Results should show a positive correlation of 0.8+
2) Inter rater observations - 2 researchers observe the same thing independently and compare results. They should find a positive correlation. A pilot study could check behavioural categories.

88
Q

How would you make a questionnaire reliable

A

Use test retest
Clear questions, no technical jargon
Use closed questions

89
Q

How would you make a interview reliable

A

Same interviewer

Structured interview

90
Q

How would you make a observation reliable

A

Operationalise variables
Avoid overlapping behavioural categories
Pilot study

91
Q

How would you make a experiment reliable

A

High controlled lab

More about increasing ability to replicate study but does increase reliability

92
Q

Define ethical implications

A

The impact psychological research may have in terms of the rights of participants or wider society.

93
Q

Define social sensitivity

A

Siber and Stanley - ‘studies which have potential consequences either directly for participants or for the class of individuals represented by the research’

94
Q

Sieber and Stanley identified a number of criteria researchers should be mindful of. Name them .

A

Implications - Wider affects of society

Uses/public policy - Wrong purpose?

The validity of the research - Objective? Reflexivity?

95
Q

Name 2 benefits of socially sensitive research

A

People may become more sensitive toward in underrepresented groups

Benefits society ie. Eye witness testimony

96
Q

Name the social sensitivity study which allowed social control

A

1920s America. Those deemed feeble minded were sterilised and this was supported by the scientific community due to socially sensitive research by Goddard propping up this claim

97
Q

Who weighs out the costs and benefits for socially sensitive research

A

An ethics committee

98
Q

Discuss implications of culture bias (3 cons)

A
  • No distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures due to interconnectedness
  • No all psychology is culturally relative eg. Ekman’s facial expression research suggests basic emotions are universal
  • Demand characteristics are exaggerated when working with Western cultures as they may have participants familiar with aims
99
Q

Discuss free will (2 for, 1 against)

A

+ Face validity, makes cognitive sense
+ Internal locus of control usually means more mentally healthy
- Neurological studies have found a 10 second gap between participants pressing a left or right button and being consciously aware of their action

100
Q

Discuss determinism (3 for, 2 against)

A

+ Consistent with the aims of science
+ Helps develop treatments and therapies as it helps predict and control human behaviour
+ Schizophrenics lose control of thoughts, casting doubt on free will
- Not consistent with the legal system
- It is unfalsifiable thus it isn’t as scientific as not all causes of behaviour have been found

101
Q

Discuss the nature-nurture debate (1 pro, 4 cons)

A

+ Behaviour shaping leads to beneficial application in therapies

  • Negative implications (leads to eugenics)
  • Hard to establish if a high concordance is due to a shared environment
  • People create nurture to fit their nature thus the two are inseparable
  • Scarr and McCarthy theorise gene-environment interaction: passive, active and evocative
102
Q

What 3 gene-environment interactions did Scarr and McCarthy propose

A

1) Passive
2) Evocative
3) Active

103
Q

Define passive interaction

A

When the parents genes influence how they treat their children

104
Q

Define evocative interaction

A

When the child’s own genes shape their own environment

105
Q

Define active interaction

A

When a child creates their own environment through people and selected experience

Psychology - A Level (5 decks)

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