Issues And Debates - Biases

Question 1

What is universality

Answer 1

Universality - any underlying characteristic of human beings which is capable of being applied to all

Question 2

What are 2 objectives (validity) that researchers try to do?

Answer 2

Psychologists attempt to conduct research that is objective and value free

Question 3

What is the a massive problem when doing psychological research?
Leading to?

Answer 3

Everyone has unconscious biases which could influence their findings and conclusions
This can undermine the universality of the research (it being applied to all human beings)

Question 4

What is Alpha bias?

Answer 4

When the difference between men and women are exaggerated either heighten the value of women or to devalue them, without bias. These differences are presented as real and enduring, fixed and inevitable.

Question 5

Give an example of Alpha Bias?

Answer 5

sociobiological theory
Wilson (1975) - sociobiological theory of relationship formation focuses on “survival efficiency”
It believes that it is in a males’s interest to try and impregnate as many women as possible as this will guarantee that his genes will he passed through the generations
For the female their best chance is to secure the sperm of a healthy man to increase the survival of her offspring
Which concludes to:
Sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, whilst women who engaged in similar activity are seen as going against their nature

Question 6

What is beta bias?

Answer 6

When differences between the sexes are ignored, minimised or underestimated without evidence.
This often happens when a experiment is only males and the researchers assume that there will be no differences between the sexes

Question 7

Who gives us an example of Beta Bias

Answer 7

Kohlberg

Question 8

What is the example of Beta bias (Kohlberg)

Answer 8

He stage of moral dvelopment was based entirely on a longtitudional sample of american men
Though he argued his findings were universals and response of both men and women
He claimed that women generally reached lower levels of development (androcentrism)

Question 9

What is Androcentrism also know as?

Answer 9

Institutional sexism

Question 10

Androcentrism

Answer 10

Male focused/centred research. This is a consequence of beta bias when women are excluded from studies. If normal behaviour is based of studies with only male samples, normal female behaviours will be seen as abnormal.
So female behaviour is misunderstood and underrepresented

Question 11

What is Gynocentrism?

Answer 11

A study conducted only on females but generalised also to males

Question 12

Give a really good example of alpha bias?

Answer 12

Karen Horney stated it was wrong to think females as being envious of penises
She coined the term womb envy in which makes re envious of a women ability of childbirth

Question 13

What is cultural bias?

Answer 13

A tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all behaviours through the lens’ of one’s own culture

Question 14

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 14

A type of cultural bias - Judging other cultures by the valuers and standards of one’s own culture. This can result in feelings of superiority for one’s own culture which can lead to problems of prejudice and bias

Question 15

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 15

The idea that norms, values, ethics and standards differ from culture to culture and so can only be understood within specific social and cultural contexts

More valid studies will recognise cultural relativism

Question 16

What is alpha bias in terms of culture?

Answer 16

Alpha bias assumes that there are real and enduring differences between cultural groups.

Question 17

Define Beta bias in terms of culture?

Answer 17

Beta bias refers to theories which ignore or minimise any differences in culture.

Question 18

Give an example of beta bias in terms of culture?

Answer 18

For example the use of IQ tests on non western cultures

Question 19

Give an example of alpha bias in terms of culture?

Answer 19

For example differences between collective and individualistic societies

Question 20

Give some examples of ethnocentric studies?

Answer 20

Milgriam
Asch
Ainsworth

Question 21

What is imposed etic?

Answer 21

This is when we impose western beliefs on people from other cultures or belief systems and judge them by it

Question 22

What did Berry argue?

Answer 22

That we impose our etic on other cultures
And instead we should use an emic approach

Question 23

What is an emic approach?

Answer 23

this functions from within a given culture and identifies behaviours that is specific to that culture

Question 24

What could Berry’s view lead to?

Answer 24

This will result in psychologists being more mindful in their research and recognising cultural relativism which may otherwise be ignored or misinterpreted

Question 25

What did Goddard claim?
When?

Answer 25

1917
he claimed that race and IQ - Russian, Jews, Hungarians and Italians were “feeble” minded

Question 26

What does Herrnstein and Murrey’s
(1994) claim?

Answer 26

claimed that intelligence and race are linked

Question 27

What are Goddard and (Herrnstein and Murrey) studies examples of?

Answer 27

Scientific racism

Question 28

Give an example of the broadness of CBS

Answer 28

There was a study done which showed how African-Caribbean immigrants are 7X more likely to be misdiagnosed with schizophrenia

Question 29

How did the DSM combat CBS

Answer 29

To combat this problem DSM5 (diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders) included in its appendix a list of 25 culture bound syndromes

Question 30

What is the problem with an emic approach?

Answer 30

It only helps our understanding of behaviours within that culture, it could be seen as a reductionist approach

Question 31

How could we try to reduce gender biases in research?

Answer 31

Understanding that men and women are biologically different
And that they may respond in different ways in situations (female behaviour isn’t abnormal)
Female;s using their initials so not to be judged by publishers (eg JK Rowling)

Question 32

Explain the argument around PMS?

Answer 32

PMS - Feminists object to this as they believe that it is a social construct which stereotypes and trivialised the female experience (DSM V added PMS as a diagnosis of depression)

PMS suggests that female anger is due to hormones whereas male anger is a rational response to external pressure

Question 33

What was different about CBS in DSM 4 to DSM 5?

Answer 33

DSM 4 it was its own category
In DSM 5 it was in the appendixes

Question 34

Explain (with an example) how research can be done with an emic approach?

Answer 34

Buss, did this in his classic study on mate preference. The data was collected from people in 37 different cultures in order to look at universal behaviour. In each cultural setting there were 3 local researchers
(This is an example of an emic aproach using cross cultural examples)

Question 35

How can we reduce ethnic biases in research (dealing with emic)?

Answer 35

An etic approach seeks universality of behaviour.
A way to avoid cultural bias is to use indigenous researchers in each “cultural setting”
Furthermore, you may want to use a stratified sample when using groups of participants “within a culture)

Question 36

What are the positive evaluations of gender bias?

Answer 36

Reflexivity
Feminist psychology
Addressing gender bias

Question 37

What are the negative evaluations of gender bias?

Answer 37

Primary effects
Institutional sexism
Essentialism

Question 38

Explain the positive evaluation of gender bias: Reflexivity

Answer 38

• Modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work.
• Rather than see bias as a problem they embrace it and see it as a critical aspect of the research process.
• Dambrin and Lambert (2008) – reflected on their own gender-related experiences in their research.
• Reflexivity is an important development in psychology and has led to greater awareness of the role of personal bias in research.

Question 39

Explain the positive evaluation of gender bias: Feminist psychology

Answer 39

Worrell (1992) stated that a number of criteria should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias:
• Women should be studied in real life context
• They should genuinely participate in research
• They should not be objects of study
• Diversity within groups of women should be examined as opposed to differences between men and women.

Question 40

Explain the positive evaluation of gender bias: addressing gender bias

Answer 40

• Feminist perspective
• Re-examining the ‘facts’ about gender
• View of women as normal humans, not deficient men
• Skepticism towards biological determinism
• Research agenda focusing on women’s concerns
• A psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women

Question 41

Explain the negative evaluation of gender bias: Primary effects

Answer 41

• Gender-biased leads to androcentrism and fails to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.
• It may provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities both in the workplace and society.
• Tavris (1993) – it becomes ‘normal’ for women to feel abnormal.’
• It may therefore have lasting and damaging consequences for real women.

Question 42

Explain the negative evaluations of gender bias: Institutional sexism

Answer 42

• Lack of women at senior level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.

• Lab experiments have female participants and male researchers:
People can come into research with preexisting ideas and biases (schema) that might cause an inequality within the researcher and participants relationship
• Denmark et al (1988) – psychology is institutionally sexist and creates bias in theory and research.

Question 43

Explain the negative evaluations of gender bias: Essentialism

Answer 43

Essentialist perspective - That gender differences are fixed and enduring.
• These can often be politically motivated ‘facts’ that create double-standards.
This is referring to biological sex where there are fundamental differences between XX and XY in terms of biological development. However, social constructs of gender have determined fixed difference between boys clothes, boys toys and girls clothes and toys. These are socially constructed and are not necessarily enduring

Question 44

What is the big word in gender bias?

Answer 44

Essentialism

Question 45

What are the positive evaluations of cultural bias bias?

Answer 45

Individualism and collectivism similarities
Application of the scientific method
Challenging implicit assumptions

Question 46

What are the negative evaluations of cultural bias?

Answer 46

Potential ignorance of universality
Unfamiliar with research ppts

Question 47

Explain the positive evaluations of cultural bias: Individual vs collectivism similarities

Answer 47

• Jahoda (1978) argues that biological evolutionary changes are so small since the stone age – therefore most new behaviours must be a product of our culture.
• Traditionally, psychologists have looked at collectivist and individualistic cultures, however this has been criticised as simplistic distinction between cultures.
• Tokano and Osaka (1999) – 14 out of 15 studies that compared the USA and Japan found no distinction between collectivism and individualism.

Question 48

Explain the positive evaluations of cultural bias: Application of the scientific method

Answer 48

• Problem with cross-cultural research is that variables may not be viewed in the same way by all participants.
• Behavioural expressions can be viewed differently by people in different cultures.
• This may result in misunderstandings between the researcher and participants.

Question 49

Explain the positive evaluation of cultural bias: Challenging implicit assumptions

Answer 49

• Benefits of cross-cultural research is that it challenges western views.
• This may promote greater sensitivity to other cultures and prevents
scientific racism of the past.
• The conclusions psychologists draw are likely to have more validity.

Question 50

Explain the negative evaluation of cultural bias: Potential ignorance of universality

Answer 50

• Ekman (1989) argues that we must be aware of the fact there is some
universality in behaviour. Eg happy facial features.

Question 51

Explain the negative evaluation of cultural bias: Unfamiliarity with traditional research

Answer 51

Participants’ familiarity with general aims and objectives is assumed • Cannot assume all cultures have the same knowledge
- Demand characteristics may be exaggerated and this affects validity