Issues And Debates

Question 1

What is meant by Universality

Answer 1

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and culture bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology.

Question 2

What is meant by Gender bias

Answer 2

When considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others. In the context of gender bias, psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women).

Question 3

What is meant by Androcentrism

Answer 3

Male-centered; when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard (meaning that female behaviour is often judged to be ‘abnormal’ or ‘deficient’ by comparison).

Question 4

What is meant by Alpha bias

Answer 4

Psychological theories that suggest there are real and enduring differences between men and women. These may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but typically undervalue females.

Question 5

What is meant by Beta bias

Answer 5

Theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes.

Question 6

What is meant by Cultural bias

Answer 6

Refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through thre ‘lens’ of one’s own culture.

Question 7

What is meant by Ethnocentrism

Answer 7

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. In its extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.

Question 8

What is meant by Cultural relativism

Answer 8

The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

Question 9

What is meant by Free will

Answer 9

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.

Question 10

What is meant by Determinism

Answer 10

The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something.

Question 11

What is meant by Hard determinism

Answer 11

Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control.

Question 12

What is meant by Soft determinism

Answer 12

All events, including human behaviour, have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of coercion. In contrast with hard determinism.

Question 13

What is meant by Biological determinism

Answer 13

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control.

Question 14

What is meant by Psychic determinism

Answer 14

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.

Question 15

What is meant by The nature-nurture debate

Answer 15

Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics.

Question 16

What is meant by Heredity

Answer 16

The genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another.

Question 17

What is meant by Environment

Answer 17

Any influence on human behaviour that is non-genetic. This may range from pre-natal influences in the womb through to cultural and historical influences at a societal level.

Question 18

What is meant by The interactionist approach

Answer 18

The idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate the two, so researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other.

Question 19

What is meant by Holism

Answer 19

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts (which is the reductionist approach). -Gestalt Psychologists declared ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’.

Question 20

What is meant by Reductionism

Answer 20

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts. -It is based on the scientific principle of parsimony-that all phenomena should be explained using the most basic (lower level) principles

Question 21

What is meant by Biological reductionism

Answer 21

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological level (in terms of the actions of genes, hormones, etc.).

Question 22

What is meant by Environmental reductionism

Answer 22

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience.

Question 23

What is meant by Idiographic approach

Answer 23

Derived from the Greek ‘idios’ meaning ‘private or personal’. An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour (the nomothetic approach).

Question 24

What is meant by Nomothetic approach

Answer 24

Derived from the Greek ‘nomos’ meaning ‘law’. The nomothetic approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws.

Question 25

What is meant by Ethical implications

Answer 25

The impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people especially participants. This includes, at a societal level, influencing public policy and/or the way in which certain groups of people are regarded.

Question 26

What is meant by Social sensitivity

Answer 26

Sieber and Stanley (1988) define socially sensitive research as, ‘studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research’.

Question 27

What are the different levels of reductionism

Answer 27

Socio-cultural context- consider the impact of the social environment on the mind and behaviour. Psychological level – consider the mind and behaviour. Physical level- consider the behaviour. Physiological level- consider the biology behind the behaviour. Neurochemical level- consider the neurochemistry e.g. the levels of neurotransmitters involved.

Question 28

How can the levels of reductionism be applied to OCD?

Answer 28

Socio-cultural context: producing repetitive behaviour such as hand washing that most people would regard as odd or irrational. Psychological level: the experience of obsessive thoughts and how these often lead to repetitive behaviours. Physical level: the sequence of movements involved in washing one’s hands. Physiological level: abnormality in lateral frontal lobes or the left parahippocampal gyrus. Neurochemical level: underproduction of serotonin.

Question 29

Which is the ‘best’ explanation between holism and reductionism for OCD?

Answer 29

Even Psychology itself can be put into a level of reductionism as it is more reductionist the Sociology but less reductionist than biology.

Question 30

Using an example of a topic you have studied in psychology, distinguish between biological reductionism and environmental reductionism (5 marks).

Answer 30

Biological reductionism We are all biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes. All behaviour is at some level biological so can be explained through neurochemical, neurophysiological, evolutionary and genetic influences. E.g. OCD and schizophrenia can both be explained at a biochemical level. Environmental (stimulus-response reductionism) The foundation of the behaviourist approach. Behaviourists study only observable behaviour and in doing so break complex learning down to stimulus-response links measured in a laboratory. The key unit of analysis occurs at the physical level- this approach is not concerned with mental processes.

Question 31

People are studied as unique entities each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values. There is no attempt to compare these to a larger group, standard or norm. Idiographic or nomothetic?

Answer 31

Idiographic

Question 32

Give points to outline the idiographic approach

Answer 32

• -People are studied as unique entities each with their own subjective experiences, motivations and values. There is no attempt to compare these to a larger group, standard or norm. Generally associated with methods in psychology that produce qualitative data such as case studies, unstructured interviews and other self-report measures. This helps to describe the richness of human experience and gain insight into the person’s unique way of viewing the world. Humanistic psychology is a good example of this approach to research. Rogers and Maslow took a phenomenological (study experience from first-hand point of view) approach to the study of humans and were interested only in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or ‘self’. Describing themselves as ‘anti-scientific’ they were interested in unique human experience. The Psychodynamic approach is often labelled as this approach because of Sigmund Freud’s use of case studies when dealing with the lives of his patients.

Question 33

Give point to outline the nomothetic approach

Answer 33

• -General laws of human behaviour are produced using this approach. These provide a benchmark against which people can be compared, classified and measured and in the basis of which, likely future can be predicted and/ or controlled. According to Radford and Kirby (1975) applications of the nomothetic approach in psychology have produced three broad types of general law: Classifying people into groups. Establishing principles of behaviour that can be applied to people in general. Establishing dimensions along which people can be placed and compared. Most closely aligned with methods seen as scientific such as experiments. These involve the study of large numbers of people to establish how they are similar which will also inform us the ways in which people are different from one another. A feature of this approach to research is that it is reductionist & determinist & employs scientific methods of investigation. Hypotheses are formulated under controlled conditions and findings generated from large numbers of people are analysed. Much of the research conducted by behaviourist, cognitive and biological psychologists would meet the criteria of this approach. E.g. Skinner studied the responses of hundreds of rats, pigeons etc. to develop laws of learning. E.g. Cognitive psychologists have been able to infer the structure and processes of memory by measuring the performance of large samples of people in laboratory tests. E.g. Biological psychologists have conducted brain scans on countless human brains in order to make generalisations of localisation of function.

Question 34

General laws of human behaviour are produced using this approach. These provide a benchmark against which people can be compared, classified and measured and in the basis of which, likely future can be predicted and/ or controlled. Nomothetic or idiographic?

Answer 34

Nomothetic

Question 35

Generally associated with methods in psychology that produce qualitative data such as case studies, unstructured interviews and other self-report measures. This helps to describe the richness of human experience and gain insight into the person’s unique way of viewing the world. Idiographic or nomothetic?

Answer 35

Idiographic

Question 36

Most closely aligned with methods seen as scientific such as experiments. These involve the study of large numbers of people to establish how they are similar which will also inform us the ways in which people are different from one another. Idiographic or nomothetic?

Answer 36

Nomothetic

Question 37

A feature of this approach to research is that it is reductionist & determinist & employs scientific methods of investigation. Hypotheses are formulated under controlled conditions and findings generated from large numbers of people are analysed. Idiographic or nomothetic?

Answer 37

Nomothetic

Question 38

Humanistic psychology is a good example of this approach to research. Rogers and Maslow took a phenomenological (study experience from first-hand point of view) approach to the study of humans and were interested only in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or ‘self’. Describing themselves as ‘anti-scientific’ they were interested in unique human experience. Idiographic or nomothetic?

Answer 38

Idiographic

Question 39

The Psychodynamic approach is often labelled as this approach because of Sigmund Freud’s use of case studies when dealing with the lives of his patients. Idiographic or nomothetic?

Answer 39

BOTH. Can be idio coz case studies but also nomo because Freud assumed he had identified universal laws of behaviour and personality development e.g. the psychosexual stages

Question 40

Much of the research conducted by behaviourist, cognitive and biological psychologists would meet the criteria of this approach. E.g. Skinner studied the responses of hundreds of rats, pigeons etc. to develop laws of learning. E.g. Cognitive psychologists have been able to infer the structure and processes of memory by measuring the performance of large samples of people in laboratory tests. E.g. Biological psychologists have conducted brain scans on countless human brains in order to make generalisations of localisation of function. Idiographic or nomothetic?

Answer 40

Nomothetic

Question 41

How can the nomothetic approach be applied to real life?

Answer 41

According to Radford and Kirby (1975) applications of the nomothetic approach in psychology have produced three broad types of general law: Classifying people into groups. Establishing principles of behaviour that can be applied to people in general. Establishing dimensions along which people can be placed and compared.

Question 42

Answer 42

Question 43

Answer 43

• Q1.
• [AO1 = 4]
• 1 mark for each correct match
• A Cultural relativism
• D Ethnocentrism
• C Holism
• B Universality
• Can allow credit for letters without concepts, as long as the letters are in the right order. If any letter is used more than once, no credit for that letter.

Question 44

Answer 44

• (a)     [AO2 = 2]
• 2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation that includes some link to the content of the headline.
• 1 mark for a limited or muddled explanation
• Content:
• •        The sample was all male, but the newspaper refers to ‘Everyone…’ suggesting that the effect would be the same for both males and females
• •        possible differences between genders are being ignored/minimised.

•

• (b)     [AO3 = 1]
• 1 mark for a clear, relevant suggestion.
• Possible suggestions:
• •        including participants of both sexes in their research
• •        making it clear in reporting that any conclusion relates only to the gender of the sample.
• Credit can be given for answers focused on the example in the stem.
• Answers proposing female only research are not creditworthy.

Question 45

Answer 45

• [AO3 = 4]
• In each case:
• 2 marks for a brief, clear and coherent outline of the problem.
• •        In the case of alpha bias there is a misrepresentation of behaviour researchers / theorists overestimate / exaggerate gender differences
• •        In the case of beta bias there is a misrepresentation of behaviour because researchers / theorists underestimate / minimise gender differences - this could lead to androcentrism if only males are included in research but the results are applied to females.
• 1 mark for a problem partially outlined or merely stated.
• Credit other valid problems.

Question 46

Answer 46

• Psychologists are influenced by their social and historical context.​
• Bias may be an inevitable aspect of the research process. This is despite the arguments psychologists make to have discovered facts about human behaviour that are ‘objective’ and ‘value-free’.​
• When considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others. ​
• There are two forms of bias that undermine universality: gender and culture.
• Bias also undermines psychology’s claims to universality- that conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless of time or culture.​
• Gender bias is when psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women
• Cultural bias is the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture.

Question 47

Answer 47

•Ainsworth’s SS research (1).

•

•Ainsworth’s findings in attachment are not examples of universal attachment behaviour.

•

•Ainsworth (1970) has been criticised as reflecting only the norms and values of American culture in attachment research.

•

•Her research was ethnocentric as she judged attachment in other cultures by an American standard.

•

•She identified the key defining variable of attachment type as the child’s experience of anxiety and separation. She suggested the ideal (or secure) attachment was the infant showing moderate distress when left alone.

Question 49

1.Explain the difference between soft and hard determinism.

Answer 49

Hard determinism Implies free will is not possible as our behaviour is always cased by internal or external forces rather than individual’s will to do something whereas soft determinism implies that whilst events (including human behaviour) have causes, behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of coercion.

Question 50

•Explain why the idea of free will would seem to be incompatible with the aims of science (4 marks).

Answer 50

• Free will is inconsistent with the assumptions of science because science is based on causal explanations whereas free will implies that behaviours and thinking are non-determinist or not caused.
• Science aims to predict and control behaviour whereas free will implies that behaviours and thinking result from a person’s complete freedom to control what he or she does and thinks.
• The idea that a non-physical phenomenon like free will can have an effect on the physical world in the form of behaviour is at odds with the assumption of science that a physical effect must have a physical cause.