Issues and Debates

Question 1

Gender bias

Answer 1

This happens when the use of stereotypes leads to one gender being treated less favourably.

Question 2

What are the three main types of gender bias

Answer 2

Alpha bias, beta bias, and androcentrism

Question 3

Alpha bias

Answer 3

This exaggerates the differences between men and women, which leads to one gender being devalued in comparison to the other.

Question 4

Example of Alpha bias

Answer 4

Freud’s theories showed men being superior and women having penis envy

Question 5

Beta bias

Answer 5

This is when there is a tendency to ignore or minimise the differences between men and women, these theories would assume that results from studies using only men would apply equally to women.

Question 6

Example of Beta bias

Answer 6

Fight or flight, biological research usually conducted with male animals as the variations in hormones for females makes research more difficult. So it is assumed that results from male samples would be the same for females.

Question 7

Androcentrism

Answer 7

Focused on men. Almost all psychologists are male and therefore the theories they produce tend to be centred around a male point of view.

Question 8

A03: Bias in research methods

Answer 8

One limitation is that psychological theories and studies are gender biased because the methods used are biased. It was found that male experimenters were more friendly and encouraging to female participants than to males. The result was that male participants appeared to perform less well on the tasks assigned. This is a limitation because it creates a false picture of male-female differences.

Question 9

A03: Reverse alpha bias

Answer 9

One strategy to counter gender bias is to develop theories which show differences between men and women but that emphasise the value of women. This can be seen in feminist research which shows instances where women are better. For example, research shows that women are better at learning because they are more attentive, flexible and organised. This research challenges the stereotype that in any gender differences the male position must be better.

Question 10

A03: Avoiding a beta bias

Answer 10

Equal treatment between men and women has given women greater opportunities, but this could be a disadvantage. It is argued that equality between men and women draws attention away from women’s special needs and from differences in power between men and women. For example, equal parental leave ignores the biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, therefore disadvantaging women. This suggest that we should avoid beta bias in order to ensure that significant differences are taken into account.

Question 11

Cultural bias

Answer 11

The tendency to judge all people in terms of you own cultural assumptions.

Question 12

Alpha bias in cultural bias

Answer 12

This refers to theories that assume there are real differences between cultural groups. Example: we would expect people from an individualist culture to be less conformist as they are less oriented to group norm, than collectivist culture.

Question 13

Beta bias in cultural bias

Answer 13

Refers to theories that ignore differences in culture. They assume that all people are the same and therefore reasonable to use the same theories for all cultural groups.

Question 14

Ethnocentrism

Answer 14

Seeing things from the point of view of ourselves or our social group. Evaluating other groups of people using the standards of one’s own culture.

Question 15

Cultural relativism

Answer 15

The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture it originates.

Question 16

Universality

Answer 16

The aim to develop theories that apply to all people.

Question 17

A03: Indigenous psychologies

Answer 17

One way to counter ethnocentrism is to develop different theories in different countries. Afrocentrism is a movement whose proposition is that all black people have their roots in Africa and that psychological theories concerning such people must be African-centred. Afrocentrism disputes the view that all European values are universally appropriate descriptions of human behaviour. It suggests that the culture of Europeans devalue non-European people, and could be irrelevant to the culture of people with African descent. This is a strength as it has led to the development of theories relevant to the life and culture of people of African descent.

Question 18

A03: The emic-etic distinction

Answer 18

An emic approach is one that emphasises uniqueness of every culture by focusing on culturally specific phenomena. The problem with these approaches is that the findings tend to be significant only to the understanding within that culture. An etic approach seeks universals of behaviour. One way to achieve this, while avoiding cultural bias, is to use indigenous researchers in each cultural setting. This will allow researchers to investigate universal behaviour while avoiding cultural bias.

Question 19

A03: Cultural bias in research methods.

Answer 19

Cultural bias in psychology can be dealt with by using studies with samples from different cultural groups. In 1998, It was found in a European textbook that 66% of studies were American, 32% were European, and 2% came from the rest of the world. This suggests that psychology findings are not representative on a global scale and there is a need for more research with samples from different cultural groups.

Question 20

Determinism

Answer 20

This is the view that behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors acting upon the individual.

Question 21

Hard determinism

Answer 21

The view that all behaviour can be predicted and there is no free will.

Question 22

Soft determinism

Answer 22

The view that there is some element of free will

Question 23

Biological determinism

Answer 23

This is the genetic influences on behaviour. Research on intelligence has identified particular genes found in people with high intelligence. Genes influence brain structure and neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine are often implicated in behaviour.

Question 24

Environmental determinism

Answer 24

Behaviourists think that behaviour is caused by previous experience, through classical and operant conditioning.

Question 25

Psychic determinism

Answer 25

Freuds psychoanalytic theory of personality suggests that adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experiences. Behaviour is driven by the libido, which focuses sequentially on erogenous zones

Question 26

Free will

Answer 26

Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour. It does not deny that there may be biological and environmental forces that exert some influence but it is our choice if we accept or reject these factors.

Question 27

A03: Genetic versus environmental determinism

Answer 27

A problem with both genetic and environmental determinism is that neither can be the sole determining factor in behaviour. For example, studies that compare identical twins find about 80% similarity on intelligence or about 40% for depression. In other words, if one twin has a high IQ, there is only 80% chance that the other twin will be the same. Therefore genes do not entirely determine behaviour. But equally the environment doesn’t entirely determine behaviour. This means that an interactionist approach rather than deterministic approach better represents reality.

Question 28

A03: Determinism consistent with the ways of science

Answer 28

A strength of determinism is that the notion of human behaviour being orderly and obeying fixed laws places psychology on equal footing with other sciences. Furthermore, such research can help us predict and control human behaviour as we can identify a cause and effect relationship which will enhance our understanding of behaviour. This is a strength because it can lead to the development of treatment and therapies that may
benefit many. For example, depression is known to be caused by an imbalance in neurotransmitters and can help us devise specific treatments such as SSRIs to correct the levels of serotonin. Therefore, deterministic ideas of fixed causes leading to behaviour can be seen as scientific and can be used to help people.

Question 29

A03: Hard determinism may be considered as unscientific

Answer 29

A weakness of hard determinism is that it can be deemed as unscientific. Determinism is based on the idea that the causes of behaviour exist, even though they are not always known or proven yet. As a principle this can be seen as unfalsifiable. For example, psychic determinism claims that mental illnesses are caused by unconscious urges, which cannot be tested empirically or proven scientifically. According to figures like Karl Popper, such unfalsifiable theories cannot be consistent with science. Therefore, while some aspects of determinism can make psychology seem scientific, other elements of it can lead to psychology being seen as lesser than science.

Question 30

Nature and nurture debate

Answer 30

The argument as to whether a person’s development is mainly due to their genes or to environmental influences.

Question 31

Influence of nature: Genetic explanations

Answer 31

Twin studies show that the closer to individuals are genetically, the more likely they are to develop the same behaviours.

Question 32

Influence of nature: Evolutionary explanations

Answer 32

Any evolutionary explanation is based on the principle that a behaviour or characteristic that promotes survival and reproduction will be naturally selected.

Question 33

Influence of nurture: Behaviourism

Answer 33

Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience alone. B.F. Skinner used the concepts of classical and operant conditioning to explain learning.

Question 34

influence of nurture: Social learning theory

Answer 34

Bandura’s view was a little less extreme than traditional behaviourism. He too proposed that behaviour is acquired through learning, adding the new dimension of indirect reinforcement. But Bandura also allowed biological influences like the urge to behave aggressively might be biological.

Question 35

Tabula rasa

Answer 35

Humans are born with a blank slate.

Question 36

A03: Supporting evidence for nature

Answer 36

One strength of the nature approach is that it is supported by strong scientific evidence. For example, research has demonstrated that the concordance rate for schizophrenia for MZ twins is 40% compared to 7% for DZ twins. This demonstrates that the closer the two individuals are genetically, the more likely they are to develop the same behaviours. This means that the closer the similarity of behaviour is MZ twins may be due to the higher proportion of shared genes. Therefore, this allows us to conclude that genes are a crucial factor in the development of personality and behaviour, adding validity to the nature debate.

Question 37

A03: Supporting evidence for nurture

Answer 37

One strength of the nurture approach is that it is supported by research which is considered as credible. Since supporters of the nurture approach assume that all
behaviour is caused by experiences, they are supported
by the works of Pavlov and Skinner who demonstrate that we learn through association and reinforcement. Furthermore, behaviours previously conceived as evolutionary has also been demonstrated to be product of experiences. Behaviourists claim that attachments develop as a result of a child associating food with the mother and eventually developing feelings of closeness
towards the mother. This demonstrates that our environment and interactions play a crucial role in shaping our behaviour and conduct, adding validity to the nurture argument.

Question 38

A03: The diathesis stress model

Answer 38

The diathesis stress model offers a way to understand both nature and nurture. It is often used to explain mental disorders such as phobia. A diathesis is a biological vulnerability, such as being born with certain genes that predispose a person to developing a disorder. However, research has shown that not everyone with those genes develop the disorder. Expression of the gene or genes depends on experience in the form of a ‘stressor’ which triggers the condition. Thus a person’s nature is only expressed under certain conditions of nurture. This emphasises the importance of taking an interactionist approach.

Question 39

Holism

Answer 39

This is the view that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Any attempt to break down the whole to understand the concept or behaviour would not allow you to develop a full understanding.

Question 40

Reductionism

Answer 40

Analyses behaviour by breaking it down into smaller parts. It is the most simplified way of explanation

Question 41

Levels of explanation (within reductionism)

Answer 41

Highest level – cultural and social explanations of how social groups effect behaviour.

Middle level – psychological explanations of behaviour.

Lower level – biological explanations of how hormones and genes affect behaviour.

Question 42

Biological reductionism

Answer 42

Based on the idea that we are biological
organisms made up of psychological
structures/processes. All behaviour at some level is biological and so can be explained through neurochemical, neuropsychological and genetic influences.

Question 43

Environmental reductionism

Answer 43

Breaks down behaviour to simple external causes from our surrounding (e.g. reinforcement and stimuli). Researchers study observable behaviour and break complex learning up into stimulus response links that are measurable within the laboratory. Sees behaviour on a physical level – doesn’t concern itself with cognitive processes of the mind that occur at a psychological level. The mind is disregarded as a ‘black box’ – in our understanding of behaviour because it does not lie within the environment.

Question 44

A03: Reductionism and real world application

Answer 44

A strength of the reductionist approach is its application to the development of treatments. This is because reductionism requires breaking down a phenomenon to its simplest factors. Viewing complex mental illnesses such as OCD at their lowest levels – in terms of
neurotransmitter imbalances has allowed psychologists to create psychoactive drugs such as SSRIs, which can help to treat the illness. Furthermore, researchers have shown that SSRIs work in around 70% of OCD patients that take it. This further adds validity to taking a reductionist approach to explaining behaviour as it illustrates that the applications drawn from the reductionist theories are successful.

Question 45

A03: Holism is not scientific

Answer 45

Reductionism also helps in psychology’s aim to be more scientific. This is because in order to draw
up reductionist explanations, it is more important to create operationalised variables, which break target behaviours down into component parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a way that is valid and reliable. For example, the behaviourist approach was able to show how complex learning can often be broken down to simple stimulus response links which could be measured empirically and
scientifically. Therefore, such practices allow for the develop of specific cause and effect relationships and also facilitate better replication, allowing for greater reliability, giving psychology greater scientific credibility.

Question 46

A03: Reductionism oversimplifies

Answer 46

A problem with reductionism is that the breaking down of
complicated concepts into component parts, may reduce the validity of explanations. For example, explanations that operate on a gene, neurotransmitter or neuron level
do not include analysis of the social context within which
behaviour occurs. Thus, whilst depression has been strongly linked to lower levels of serotonin, to see it as only a neurotransmitter issue will ignore factors such as major life events that may also contribute to its
onset. This means that reductionist explanations can only ever form a part of the explanation and may be considered incomplete in their explanation of complex human behaviour.

Question 47

Idiographic approach

Answer 47

Focuses on individuals and emphasises uniqueness, favours qualitative methods in research.

Question 48

Nomothetic approach

Answer 48

Seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour based on study groups and the use of statistical techniques. It attempts to summarise the differences between people through generalisations.

Question 49

A03: Focus on the individual level

Answer 49

A strength of the idiographic approach is its focus on the individual. Humanistic psychologists and qualitative psychologists in the latter half of the last century felt that there was too much emphasis on measurement and that psychologists had lost sight of what it was to be human. Allport, who was first to use the terms idiographic and nomothetic, argued that a drastic reorientation was needed and thats what the idiographic approach did. Allport argued that it is only by knowing the person as an individual that we can predict what the person will do in any given situation. This is a strength as it suggests that the focus on individuals can provide us with a more complete understanding.

Question 50

A03: Idiographic research methods can be narrow

Answer 50

One weakness of idiographic research methods is that while the data collected from and individual’s case study may be in depth and very informative, it cannot be generalised to the general population. It is hard to deduce a cause and effect relationship and there is rarely a control group present to compare the results with. Lastly an issue with case studies is that the conclusions drawn from them are often subjective interpretations of researchers and therefore open to bias. Therefore while idiographic research methods may be in depth, they may also lack validity and have to be considered carefully as evidence.

Question 51

A03: Nomothetic research tends to be more scientific

Answer 51

A strength of the nomothetic approach to research is that it is considered scientific. This is because in order to
develop laws that apply to the general population, the
nomothetic approach aims to test variables under standardised conditions using quantitative methods, which provide averages and lend themselves well to statistical analysis. This can help us determine a
group norm, for example, identifying that the average IQ is 100. This knowledge can be extended to help identify
abnormalities by drawing up cut off points beyond which
behaviour is considered abnormal i.e. an IQ below 70 is seen as a sign of intellectual deficient disorder – ID. This demonstrates that not only does the nomothetic approach have scientific credibility but also can be readily applied to identify abnormalities.

Question 52

Aspects in the research process where ethical issues may occur

Answer 52

• The research question
• Conduct of research and treatment of participants
• Institutional context
• Interpretation and application of findings

Question 53

Socially sensitive research

Answer 53

Any research that might have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent.

Question 54

Ethical issues in socially sensitive research

Answer 54

• Privacy
• Confidentiality
• Valid methodology
• Deception
• Informed consent
• Equitable treatment
• Scientific freedom
• Ownership of data
• Values
• Risk/benefit ratio

Question 55

A03: The wider impact of research

Answer 55

There are always social consequences to participation in research, but with socially sensitive research the impact can be even greater. For example, there is increased potential for a more indirect impact on the participant’s family, their coworkers, or maybe even the group that the participant represents. Researchers therefore need to think beyond simply safeguarding the interests of the individual in research. Researchers must take into account of the likely impact of the research on the larger group of which the participant is a member.

Question 56

A03: The inadequacy of current ethical guidelines

Answer 56

One limitation of the current ethical guidelines is that research may still inflict harm on a group of people in society. Psychologists have developed strict ethical guidelines that aim to protect the immediate needs of research participants, but they may not deal with all the possible ways on which research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society. For example, at present ethical guidelines don’t ask researchers to consider how their research might be used by others. This suggests that the considerations outlined some time ago have not yet permeated into professional practice.

Question 57

A03: May disadvantage marginalised groups

Answer 57

Many groups in society have suffered the consequences of being excluded from research or being misrepresented when they are included. It might be argued that our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by our misinterpretations of representative samples of persons with disabilities, the elderly, the disadvantaged and members of minority cultures. These flaws also mean that these groups miss out on any potential benefits of research.