Issues and Debates

Question 1

State the two types of bias.

Answer 1

Cultural and gender bias.

Question 2

Define gender bias.

Answer 2

This is where one gender is treated less favourably than the other, or results from a study including only one gender is generalised to all genders.

Question 3

What are the three types of gender bias?

Answer 3

Alpha bias, beta bias and androcentrism.

Question 4

Outline alpha bias.

Answer 4

This is where the differences between the sexes is overestimated or exaggerated, often leads to females being devalued (e.g. sociobiological theory.)

Question 5

Outline beta bias.

Answer 5

This is where the differences between the sexes is ignored, minimised or underestimated. This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research and then it is assumed that the research findings equally apply to both sexes. (e.g. fight or flight response.)

Question 6

Outline androcentrism.

Answer 6

This is a possible consequence of beta bias. If our understanding of ‘normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all-male samples, then any behaviour deviating from this is seen as abnormal.

• Could lead to female behaviour being misunderstood, e.g. anger in females seen abnormal but in men seen as rational response to external pressures.

Question 7

Evaluate gender bias.

Answer 7

• Negative implications: misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and may validate discriminatory practices. Provide scientific justification to deny women opportunities, damaging consequences affecting lives & prospects
• Sexism within the research process: less women in senior research positions, concerns not reflected in research questions asked. Male researchers more likely to have their work published. Studies finding gender differences more likely to be appear in journals than those that do not. Psychology guilty of supporting form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research.

Question 8

Give further evaluation points for gender bias.

Answer 8

• Reflexivity: many researchers starting to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on their work. Rather than viewing bias as a problem that threatens objectivity, they may embrace this as a crucial aspect of the research process (e.g. Claire Dambrin and Caroline Lambert.) important dev. in psychology, leads to greater awareness of role of personal biases in shaping research in future.
• Many of the gender differences reported by psychologists presented from an essentialist perspective (i.e. inevitable and fixed behaviours). Such essentialist views often politically motivated, creates double-standard (e.g. sociobiological theory).
• Feminist commentators as Judith Worrell and Pamela Remer have put forward a number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to prevent gender bias.

Question 9

Define culture bias.

Answer 9

This is where the findings from a study including participants from only one culture is generalised to other cultures.

Question 10

Outline what ethnocentrism is.

Answer 10

This is the belief that one’s own cultural group is superior and the normal standard, therefore any other culture different to this standard is viewed as inferior or somehow underdeveloped.

Question 11

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 11

This is a way to avoid cultural bias by regarding the principles, beliefs and practices from the viewpoint of that culture itself.

Question 12

What is an emic approach and an etic approach? How does this relate to an imposed etic?

Answer 12

An emic approach: looks at behaviour within a culture and identifies behaviours specific to that culture.
An etic approach: looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and tries to identify those behaviours that are universal.
Imposed etic: where an emic approach and etic approach is confused, this happens when a technique or theory is developed in one culture and then imposed on another.

Question 13

Free will vs determinism.

Answer 13

Free will suggests humans are self-determining and free to choose their own thoughts and actions.
Determinism argues free will has no place in explaining behaviour, there is always a cause. Types of determinism include: hard, soft, biological, psychic and environmental.

Question 14

Evaluate determinism.

Answer 14

• It is consistent with the aims of science, finds cause and can predict behaviour. This has also allowed development of treatments for illnesses such as SZ.
• However hard determinism is not consistent with the way the legal system operates, perpetrators are held accountable for their actions.

Question 15

Evaluate free will.

Answer 15

• Everyday experience gives impression that we are able to exercise validity, gives free will face validity.
• Neurological evidence of basic decision making has provided information which goes against the concept of free will.
• An interactionist approach may provide us with the best compromise in the free will-determinism debate e.g. SLT.

Question 16

Nature vs. nurture debate.

Answer 16

Nature: nativists argue that behaviour and human characteristics are caused by innate influences, a result of heredity. Heritability coefficient used to assess heredity (ranges 0-1), IQ is about 0.5.
Nurture: Empiricists argue the mind is a blank slate at birth and is developed through learning and experience, determined b environment.
Nature and nurture interact, e.g. diathesis-stress model and attachment.

Question 17

Evaluate the nature-nurture debate.

Answer 17

• Impossible to separate nature from nurture, e.g. twin studies.
• Also, people create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature - known as constructivism.
• Reductionist to divide explanations into either nature or nurture as they often combine in complex ways to influence behaviour.
• Nativists assume that all behaviours are inherited - this is deterministic and ignores any environmental influences as well as possibly having ethical implications. This extreme determinist stance has led to controversy such as that which attempts to link race, genetics and intelligence (eugenics).
• Empiricists suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions. Behaviour shaping allows desirable behaviours to be selectively reinforced and undesirable behaviours to be punished.

Question 18

Reductionism vs holism

Answer 18

Reductionism: principle of analysing complex things by exploring smaller constituent elements. Suggests explanations begin at highest level and progressively look at component elements. Two types of reductionism: biological and environmental.
Holism: principle that complex phenomena cannot be understood through an analysis of the constituent parts alone. Looks at a person as a whole, or a complex of factors, to explain a particular behaviour.
The interactionist approach: considers how different levels of explanation may combine and interact e.g. diathesis-stress model.

Question 19

Evaluate reductionism.

Answer 19

• Has scientific credibility, particularly biological reductionism.
• Does not provide comprehensive explanation of behaviour, e.g. onset of depression linked to several other factors other than low levels of serotonin.
• Can lead to ethical implications in society.

Question 20

Evaluate holism.

Answer 20

• Takes into account all factors so can give full and proper account of behaviour.
• Considers individual differences and acknowledges human behaviour is complex.
• Does not allow us to study behaviour in-depth and in a scientific way which does not allow for objectivity.
• Harder to draw causal relationships and goes against psychology being a science - difficult to acquire empirical evidence.
• Some social behaviours such as conformity cannot be understood by studying individual alone but rather in a group as they emerge in a group context.

Question 21

Idiographic and nomothetic approaches

Answer 21

Idiographic approach: tends to describe nature of individual, studies people as unique entities with no comparisons made to benchmarks. Generally use methods producing qualitative data e.g. case studies and unstructured interviews. Examples: humanistic approach.
Nomothetic approach: aims to create general laws to use as benchmark for comparison and measurements and as basis of predicting future behaviour. Uses approaches considered ‘scientific’ such as experiments. Uses large sample sizes to see which behaviours are similar.

Question 22

Evaluate idiographic approaches.

Answer 22

• Restrictive as they are not scientific and are subjective so open to bias.
• Unable to produce general laws and produce causal relationships therefore do not really have a massive impact in the world of treating mental illnesses.
• Provides more complete and global understanding of individual so particular treatments can be tailored and specific to the individual and thus more effective.

Question 23

Evaluate nomothetic approaches.

Answer 23

• Provides more scientific explanations and methods used tend to be more objective and standardised.
• Allows theories to be generated, thus giving psychology more scientific credibility.
• Establishes causal relationships so can predict behaviours and establish treatments and therapies.
• Viewed as incomplete explanation to describe the complexity of human behaviour as focuses on creating general laws, so the ‘whole person’ can be lost.

Question 24

Discuss ethical implications of research studies and theories.

Answer 24

• Psychologists preserve the rights and dignity of their participants by using ethical guidelines.
• Socially sensitive research: studies in which there are potential ethical implications, either directly for the ppts or for the class of individuals represented by the research.
• Ethical issues in socially sensitive research to be mindful of:
• Implications: some studies may give scientific credence to prejudice and discrimination.
• Uses/public policy
• Validity of research: some findings presented as objective turned out to be fraudulent. Many more social constructionist researchers who May tackle socially sensitive areas of research are more upfront about their own biases and preconceptions, include comments on reflexive nature of their work on their publications.

Question 25

Evaluate ethical implications

Answer 25

• Benefits of socially sensitive research, studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote greater sensitivity and understanding. Can help reduce prejudice and encourage patience. valuable role in society.
• Research that influenced public policy: Burt researched basis of genetics in influencing intelligence which helped shape public policy (11+ examinations) - ethical implications & he had made thus up.
• Bowlby’s research into attachment and maternal deprivation saw him become adviser for WHO, influenced way in which children are raised and may have influenced Uk gov’s decision to not offer free child care places for children under 5.