issues and debates Flashcards
What is culture bias?
A tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture- this distorts your judgement.
What is Ethnocentrism?
Refers to the belief of superiority of one’s own culture.
What is an etic approach?
Looks at behaviours from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours that are universal.
What is an example of an etic approach?
DSM-5 and ICD-10 assume no difference between cultures. When used to classify and diagnose in non-western cultures= an imposed etic- may not be measuring what they claim to be measuring.
What is an emic approach?
Looks at behaviours within certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.
What is an example of an emic approach?
Afrocentrism= movement which proposes that all black people have their roots in Africa and that psychological theories concerning them must be African-centered and express their African values.
What is cultural relativism?
Opposite of ethnocentrism= The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates.
What is a piece of psychological research which is ethnocentrically biased?
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.
What is an example of the social implications of culturally biased research?
African Americans were at the bottom of the scale on the US army IQ test leading to negative attitudes towards this group of people by Americans.
How has contemporary psychology attempted to become more open-minded towards other cultures?
Academics hold international conferences with researchers from different countries meet to discuss and exchange ideas.
What is free will?
The notion that humans have the power to make choices about their behaviour.
What is determinism?
The notion that behaviour is controlled by internal or external factors acting upon the individual.
What is hard determinism?
The view that all behaviour can be predicted and there is no free will.
What is soft determinism?
The view that human behaviour has causes but it can also be determined by our conscious choices.
What is biological determinism?
The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences that we cannot control.
What is environmental determinism?
The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control.
What is psychic determinism?
The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.
What are the 3 approaches which are hard deterministic?
Behaviourist, biological, psychodynamic.
What are the two approaches which are soft deterministic?
Cognitive and social learning theory.
Why is Science deterministic?
Science aims to establish general laws by identifying and measuring the cause of all events.
Which approach takes a free will stance?
Humanism.
What is a case study which highlights the free will vs. determinism debate?
Stephen Mobley.
Explain how the case study of Stephen Mobley raises issues with the criminal justice system.
- Stephen shot manager in Domino’s pizza and found guilty of murder and sentenced to death.
- Mobley’s attorney appealed his sentence on basis that he had inherited a ‘criminal gene’ due to family history of criminal acts?? not responsible for his actions.
- Appeal was thrown out by judge and Mobley executed.
- Sparked questions as to whether an individual’s genetic makeup could ever be used as defence in criminal cases.
What is meant by the nature-nurture debate?
Concerned with the extent to which behaviour is a product of innate or environmental influences.
What is the nature stance on behaviour?
Aspects of human behaviours are innate and hereditary.
What are the philosophical origins of nature?
Renee Descartes’ nativism.
State 2 research examples which support the nature side of the debate.
- Candidate genes (COMT and SERT) in the development of OCD.
- Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment- humans have an innate tendency to form attachments with a caregiver giving us an adaptive advantage.
What is the nurture stance on behaviour?
We are born as blank slates (‘tabula rasa’) and experience dictates who we are and our behaviour.
What are the philosophical origins of nurture?
John Locke’s empiricism.
State 2 research examples which support the nurture side of the debate.
- Use of Systematic desensitisation and flooding to treat phobias.
- Learning theory- Attachment caused by classical or operant conditioning.
What is the interactionist approach?
The view that the processes of nature and nurture work together rather than in opposition.
State 2 research examples for an interactionist approach for the nature-nurture debate.
- Epigenetics.
- Diathesis-stress model for psychopathology.
What is epigenetics?
Changes in genetic activity due to interaction with environment.
What is a study which shows evidence of epigenetics?
Dias and Ressler (2014).
What was the procedure of Dias and Ressler (2014)?
- Gave male lab mice electric shocks every time they were exposed to the smell of acetophenone, a chemical used in perfume.
- The mice showed a fear reaction as soon as the scent was presented.
What were the findings of Dias and Ressler (2014)?
- The rats’ children also feared the smell- even though they hadn’t been exposed to acetophenone before or received any shocks. So did their grandchildren.
What is the diathesis-stress model?
- Psychopathology is caused by a biological vulnerability (diathesis) which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger (stressor).
What is a study which shows evidence for a diathesis-stress model and therefore supporting an interactionist approach in the nature-nurture debate?
Tienari et al. (2004).
How does the Tienari et al. study show support for a diathesis-stress model?
Found in a group of adoptees those most likely to develop Schizophrenia had biological relatives with a history of the disorder (diathesis) and relationships with their adoptive families that were dysfunctional (stress).
What is a practical application for the nature-nurture debate?
Nature= development of drug therapies to treat behavioural or psychological problems. Nurture= Behaviour shaping, interventions for criminal behaviour.
What is an idiographic approach?
An approach to research which focuses on the individual case and emphasises on uniqueness in order to understand human behaviour.
Which type of data does an idiographic approach focus on?
Qualitative and subjective data.
Which methods are used by the idiographic approach?
Case studies, journals, unstructured interviews to capture subjective experiences.
Which approaches take an idiographic approach?
Humanism.
What is a nomothetic approach?
An approach to research which seeks to formulate general laws of human behaviour based on the study of groups.
Which type of data does a nomothetic approach focus on?
Quantitative and objective data.
Which methods are used by the nomothetic approach?
Experiments and statistical testing.
Which approaches take a nomothetic approach?
Behaviourism, cognitive, biological and psychodynamic.
What is an interactionist approach in the context of the idiographic vs. nomothetic approach?
Seeing the idiographic and nomothetic approach as complementary rather than contradictory and taking advantage of both to explain behaviour.
Explain why the cognitive approach can be seen as taking an interactionist approach?
They aim to create general laws (e.g. WMM), but use case studies to provide evidence for theories (e.g. patient KF).
What is socially sensitive research?
Any research that might have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group that they represent.
What is meant by the ethical implications of psychological research?
It concerns the way that research impacts on those who take part in research and on the way the findings are communicated to the public and how the findings are used.
What are the three concerns that researchers should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research laid out by Sieber and Stanley?
- Implications–> wider effects of research.
- Uses/public policy –> What will this research be used for? And what will happen if it’s used in the wrong way?
- The validity of the research –> are the findings correct?
Explain a psychological theory which could be socially sensitive.
Bowlby’s theory of attachment- emphasised role of mother in development of child leading to encouragement of view that women should stay at home.
Explain another piece of research which could be socially sensitive?
The book ‘The Bell Curve’= controversial publication where psychological research was used to argue it was a waste of resources to improve educational opportunities of disadvantaged groups because these groups are genetically destined to be low achievers.
State and describe a strength of socially sensitive research.
Has been used to shape social policy- research into reliability of EWT has reduced risk of miscarriages of justice in legal system.
State 3 limitations of socially sensitive research.
Inadequacy of ethical guidelines/disadvantage marginalised groups/social control.
Why are the current ethical guidelines inadequate?
They only protect the immediate needs of the research participants and not the group of people or section of society these participants may represent.
Give an example of how socially sensitive research has led to social control.
Research into intelligence= justification of compulsory sterilisation of a large number of US states in 1920s and 30s- people who were ‘feeble-minded’ and a drain on society.
Evaluate gender bias in research methods (gender eval 1)
A review was carried out in 1974 suggested the differences between genders found could be due to methodological issues within the research studies.
Majority use lab experiments which disadvantage women findings created in the controlled world of the lab tell us very little about the experiences of women outside these settings.
E.G. Eagly and Johnson (1990)- studies in real settings found women and men were judged as more similar in styles of leadership than in lab settings.
This suggests there are serious issues with the way data is collected, which creates a false picture of male-female differences.
What is reverse alpha bias? (gender eval 3)
One strategy to counter gender bias is to develop theories which show the differences between men and women but that emphasise the value of women.
E.G. feminist research has shown that women are better at learning because they are more attentive, flexible and organised.
Such research challenges the stereotype that in any gender differences the male position must be better and changes people’s preconceptions.
What are the social implications of gender bias? (gender eval 2)
Gender-biased research creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour and validates discriminatory practices may provide scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society.
E.G. pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) in females medicalises female emotions, by explaining them in hormonal terms and thus can lower opportunities for females as they can be seen as too ‘emotional’. On the other hand emotions, such as anger in males is often seen as a rational response to external pressures.
Gender bias in research may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women.
Avoiding beta bias (gender eval 4)
It may be a disadvantage to minimise differences between men and women and fight for equal treatment as this may draw attention away from women’s special needs.
For example, equal parental leave ignores the biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, and the special needs of women, therefore disadvantaging women.
Cultural relativism leads to awareness (cultural bias eval strength 1 plus counter)
Emic approaches help to challenge the typical Western ways of thinking. It may help raise awareness and sensitivity towards cultural differences could result in reduced discrimination as people become more understanding.
E.g. Ainsworth’s imposed etic of the Strange Situation incorrectly labelled attachment styles of infants in other cultures.
- Van Ijzendoorn’s more emic study into cultural differences improved knowledge of how different culture’s child rearing practices effect attachment behaviours of infants in different ways.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Some people disagree that an entirely emic approach is the best way to help psychology develop. Although it can help us understand cultures better, it makes it more difficult to establish general laws and principles. which are much easier to use to help develop treatments to mental disorders for example.
The worldwide psychology community (cultural bias eval strength 2)
Researchers in Psychology travel much more now than they did 50 years ago. Contemporary psychologists are significantly more open-minded and well-travelled than previously. This means they have an increased understanding of other cultures at a personal and professional level. Academics hold international conferences where researchers from many different countries and cultures regularly meet to discuss and exchange ideas.
This means there is a much greater exchange of ideas, which should reduce ethnocentrism in psychology and enable a more nuanced understanding and appreciation of cultural relativism.
Indigenous psychologies (cultural bias eval lim 1 plus counter)
One way to counter ethnocentrism in psychology is to encourage indigenous psychologies= the development of different groups of theories in different countries.
E.g. Afrocentrism= movement which proposes that all black people have their roots in Africa and that psychological theories concerning such people must be African-centered and express African values. Afrocentrism disputes the view that European values are universally appropriate descriptions of human behaviour.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: It should not be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative. Research has suggested that basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world. Ainsworth’s research has shown that some features of human attachment, such as imitation and interactional synchrony, are universal.
Social implications of cultural bias (gender bias eval lim 2)
Culturally biased research helps to create or reinforce stereotypes.
For example, the US Army IQ test used just before the First World War showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ and African Americans were at the bottom of the scale with the lowest mental age. This had a profound effect on the negative attitudes held by Americans towards this group of people.
Scientific (Determinism eval strength)
Determinism is consistent with the aims of Science. It promotes the idea that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws, which places Psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences.
This prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefited many. E.g. psychotherapeutic drug treatment in controlling schizophrenia.
Not consistent with the legal system (determinism eval lim)
Hard determinist stance= individual choice is not the cause of behaviour. This is not consistent with the way in which our legal system operates. In a court of law, offenders are held morally accountable for their actions and so directly goes against determinism. This causes issues around whether criminals should be convicted for their crimes if their behaviour is supposedly caused by factors outside of their control.
E.g., Stephen Mobley (murderer of pizza shop manager). Claimed he was ‘born to kill’ due to evidence of family history. According to the determinist approach Stephen should not have been convicted for his crime. This rises an moral and ethical concerns.
Research challenge to free will (free will eval lim plus counter)
Libet et al. (1985)- found that the activity related to whether to press a button with the left or right hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before participants report being consciously aware of making such a decision. Follow-up research confirmed these findings.
This shows that even our most basic experiences of free will could be determined by our brain before we become aware of them.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Other researchers have conducted similar studies and reached a different conclusion.
E.g., Trevena and Miller (2009)- showed that the brain activity was simply a ‘readiness to act’ rather than an intention to move.
Has face validity (free will eval strength)
Everyday experience ‘gives the impression’ that we are constantly exercising free will through the choices we make everyday. This gives face validity to the concept of free will- it makes cognitive sense. The fact we think we have free will over our choices has a positive impact on mind and behaviour.
E.g., Research suggests that people who have an internal locus of control, believing that they have a high degree of influence over their own behaviour, tend to be more mentally healthy. Roberts et al. (2000)- adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism (that their lives were ‘decided’ by events outside of their control) were at significantly greater risk of developing depression.
Practical application (nature nurture debate eval strength 1)
There are practical applications for the nature side of the debate.
E.g., drug therapies developed to treat behavioural or psychological problems that have a physiological origin. E.g. SSRI’s used to treat depression
There are practical applications for the nurture side of the debate.
E.g., If behaviour is susceptible to environmental influences we can adapt our environment. E.g. How can we plan interventions for criminal behaviour and reduce aggression?
Behaviour shaping= practical application in therapy. Desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced and undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored.
Reductionist and determinism (nature nurture debate eval lim)
The nature- nurture debate is reductionist and deterministic.
E.g. Both perspectives believe that our behaviour is controlled by either the environment (nurture) or innate, inherited traits (nature) and ignores free will= deterministic.
Both perspectives also believe that behaviour can be explained by reducing it down to genetics (nature) or the environment (nurture) and does not account for how multiple factors interact to influence behaviour= reductionist.
Interactionist approach has economical implications (nature nurture eval strength 2)
The interactionist approach has allowed research to focus on how much of an importance nature and nurture have in relation to each other. This is beneficial as it can have major implications for the economy.
E.g. Research into psychopathology will take into account both heredity and the environment when treating mental disorders. This will lead to more effective treatment and so patients’ conditions will improve quicker.
This will benefit the economy as people will return to work quicker and so will not require as much sick pay and be less of a strain on the NHS. The nature-nurture debate has paved the way for development of interactionist approach.
Adoption studies (nature vs nurture eval strength 3 plus counter)
Adoption studies separate the competing infleunces of nature and nurture if adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents= environmental influence. If adopted children more similar to biological parents= genetic influence.
E.g. Rhee and Waldman (2002)- meta-analysis of adoption studies found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Nature and nurture are not two entities that be pulled apart. Plomin (1994)) people create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’. E.g. a naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable with children who show similar behaviours and will ‘choose’ their environment accordingly. Then their companions further influence their development= niche-picking. This highlights how it doesn’t make sense separate nature and nurture.
More complete, global understanding (holism eval strength 1)
There are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood at the level of the individual group members.
E.g. conformity to social roles shown by the prisoners and guards in the Stanford Prison experiment- these could not be understood by studying the participants as individuals, it was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important.
Lacks scientific credibility (holism lim)
Holistic explanations tend to be vague and lack rigorous scientific testing.
E.g. humanistic psychology tends to be criticised for its lack of empirical evidence and is seen by many as a rather loose set of concepts.
Holistic explanations that combine many different perspectives makes it hard to establish which factor is most influential and so limits the practical application of the theory.
Ignores complexity of human behaviour (reductionism lim)
Reductionist approaches can lead to errors of understanding as it ignores complex human behaviours.
E.g., to treat conditions like ADHD with drugs (Ritalin) in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than neurochemical imbalances is to mistaken. Ritalin may reduce these symptoms, but the conditions which gave rise to the ADHD have not been addressed.
Scientific credibility (reductionism strength plus counter)
A reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research. In order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations (behavioural categories) in a way that is meaningful and reliable.
This gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Reducing behaviour to a form that can be studied may not tell us much about everyday life. The operationalisation of variables bears no resemblance to the real thing. Also, there are other factors that motivate performance which cannot be recreated in an experiment- therefore findings often do not reflect the real world.
E.g. The findings from laboratory experiments investigating Eyewitness testimony have not always been confirmed by studies of real-life eyewitnesses.
Helps evaluate and develop new theories (idiographic strength plus counter)
The idiographic approach uses case studies to collect qualitative data, which can prove useful in evaluating psychological theories.
E.g. Case study of KF exposed a limitation of the Multi-store Model of Memory – showed that our STM comprises of at least two components (auditory and visual memory) and not one.
A single case study can generate further research into a phenomenon (e.g. memory), which contributes to the development of new theories that further our understanding of human behaviour.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Case study method is time-consuming and can lead to the development of universal theories, which are based on unrepresentative and limited data.
E.g. Freud’s case study of Little Hans consists of detailed descriptions of the events in Little Hans’ life.
Unscientific nature (Idiographic lim plus counter)
The emphasis on in-depth data collection and the difficulties in arriving at justifiable generalisations contradicts the central purpose of any mature science. This inability to produce general laws limits its usefulness as a source of practical knowledge about the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: It has been argued that the idiographic approach also seeks to objectify their methods. E.g. Use of triangulation findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared as a way of increasing validity. Also modern qualitative researchers are careful to reflect upon own biases as part of research process.
Scientific credibility giving practical applications (nomothetic strength plus counter)
The nomothetic approach makes use of experimental methods and controlled measurements. It is useful for predicting and controlling behaviour.
E.g. Drug therapies are developed on the basis of nomothetic research. SSRIs are used to treat OCD and increase the availability and uptake of serotonin and reducing the anxiety associated with OCD.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Drug treatments are not successful for all patients. Some psychologists argue that alternate treatments (e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy), which are based on an idiographic approach, are more suitable for treating individuals they seek to understand and explain the disorder from a patient’s point of view.
Superficial understanding of behaviour (Nomothetic lim)
The nomothetic approach fixates on quantitative data and statistical analysis- can lead to losing sight of ‘whole person’ and providing a superficial understanding of human behaviour.
E.g. Milgram’s research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a 450-volt electric shock because they were ordered to do so. However, the results fail to explain why each person obeyed, and there may have been very different circumstances that led to the obedience found in each participant.
Combined approach (nomothetic and idiographic eval)
Holt (1967) argues that the ideographic/nomothetic distinction is a false distinction. Many approaches in psychology take advantage of both approaches- the two approaches can be viewed as complementary rather than contradictory.
E.g. Cognitive psychologists take a nomothetic approach and create general laws (e.g. the Working Memory Model), they also take advantage of the idiographic approach when using case studies to provide evidence for a particular theory (e.g. Patient KF, 1970). In reality, many research studies make use of both approaches and psychologists should employ both methods.
Been used to shape social policy (socially sensitive research strength 1)
Some psychologists, argue that we should avoid carrying out socially sensitive research altogether. However, this would leave psychologists with nothing to examine other than unimportant issues and actually the findings of socially sensitive research has been used by the government and other institutions to shape social policy.
E.g. Research into the unreliability of eyewitness testimony has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice within the legal system, suggesting that socially sensitive research may play a valuable role in society.
Inadequacy of current ethical guidelines (socially sensitive lim 1)
Research may still inflict harm on a group of people in society.
Psychologists have developed strict ethical guidelines that aim to protect the immediate needs of research participants, but they may not deal with all the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society.
E.g. Currently ethical guidelines don’t ask researchers to consider how their research might be used by others
May disadvantage marginalised groups (socially sensitive lim 2 plus counter)
Our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by our misrepresentations of people with disabilities, the elderly, the disadvantaged and members of minority cultures. This leads to these groups missing out on any of the potential benefits of research.
The misrepresentation of such groups in psychological research means our understanding of human behaviour has been restricted.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Sandra Scarr (1988)- argues that studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote greater sensitivity and understanding of these. This can help to reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance.
Social control (socially sensitive lim 3)
Research into intelligence by the psychological community in the 1920s and 30s led to a large number of US states enacting legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation of many citizens (low intelligence, drug or alcohol addicts, mentally ill) on the grounds that they were ‘feeble-minded’ and a drain on society.
Psychological research had supported this rationale, arguing that such feeble-minded people were ‘unfit’ to breed.
What are the strengths and limitations of gender bias
Bias in research methods
Social implications of gender bias
Reverse alpha bias
Avoiding beta bias
What are the strengths and limitations of cultural bias
S - Cultural relativism leads to awareness
L - Indigenous psychologies
S - The worldwide psychology community
L - Social implications of cultural bias
What are the strengths and limitations of free will and determinism?
S - Determinism is scientific
L - Determinism is not consistent with the legal system
S - Free will has face validity
L - Research challenge to free will
Evaluation of Nature-nurture points
