Issues and debates Flashcards
(36 cards)
What is culture bias in psychology? (AO1)
• Culture bias occurs when psychological research or theories are influenced by the culture of the researcher, leading to conclusions that are only applicable to certain cultural groups.
• This bias can result in the misinterpretation of behaviors from individuals of different cultures, often leading to ethnocentrism, where one culture is seen as superior to others.
• Example: In early IQ testing, Western researchers assumed that intelligence was universally defined in terms of cognitive skills that were culturally specific to Western societies.
How does culture bias apply to real-life scenarios? (AO2)
✅ 1. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (Attachment)
• What happened?
Ainsworth’s original Strange Situation was based on American child-rearing norms, defining “secure attachment” using Western expectations of independence and exploration.
• Cultural bias explanation:
When applied in collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan or China), many children were misclassified as “insecure” simply because their cultural upbringing emphasised interdependence and closeness, not independence.
• So what?
This demonstrates imposed etic — applying a theory developed in one culture to another, assuming it’s universal. It leads to misinterpretation and pathologising of normal behaviour in other cultures.
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✅ 2. IQ Testing / Intelligence Research
• What happened?
IQ tests are often developed in the West, with culturally specific knowledge or problem-solving styles (e.g., logical reasoning, verbal ability).
• Cultural bias explanation:
When used on non-Western groups, these tests may wrongly classify people as having lower intelligence due to lack of cultural familiarity, not actual ability.
• So what?
This reflects ethnocentrism — viewing one’s own cultural norms as “standard”. It can have real-world consequences, such as educational discrimination or job exclusion.
What are the strengths and limitations of culture bias in psychology? (AO3)
🟣 Cultural bias threatens the universality of psychological research. If most psychological theories are based on Western samples (especially white, middle-class, American university students — “WEIRD”), they may not apply to other cultures. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation assumes that independence is a marker of secure attachment, but this doesn’t apply in collectivist cultures where dependence is encouraged. This shows how ethnocentrism leads to misclassification of normal behaviours in other cultures, which can have damaging social and developmental consequences (e.g., wrongly labelling a secure child as insecure).This is a limitation — it undermines the validity and generalisation of findings across cultures. Research now often involves indigenous psychologies (e.g., Afrocentrism) to develop theories grounded in non-Western contexts, making findings more ecologically valid.
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🟣 Imposed etics reduce cultural understanding. An etic approach assumes behaviours are universal, but applying Western-developed tools across cultures can be inappropriate. IQ testing based on Western logic and values may falsely label individuals in non-Western cultures as “less intelligent”.
This could lead to educational discrimination or the self-fulfilling prophecy, where individuals internalise negative expectations. This is a serious limitation, especially when tests are used for policy decisions, like school placements or employment.
Using emic approaches (research rooted within a specific culture) or cross-cultural validation studies helps reduce imposed etic bias.
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🟣 Cultural relativism helps address bias. Cultural relativism recognises that behaviour should be understood within its cultural context, rather than judged against Western norms.
E.g., recognising that hearing voices may be spiritually significant in some cultures prevents overpathologising people. This avoids cultural misdiagnosis in mental health and ensures people receive appropriate care. This is a strength as it promotes ethical practice and protects participants from cultural discrimination or misinterpretation.
However, overuse of cultural relativism can prevent identifying universal principles in psychology, which are important for fields like mental health or neuroscience.
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🟣 There has been positive change in modern psychology.
Awareness of cultural bias has encouraged more cross-cultural research and a diversification of samples.
For example, research in conformity by Bond & Smith showed different conformity rates across 17 countries — a shift from Asch’s Western focus.
This allows researchers to examine cultural variations and moderating variables, improving the external validity of theories.
This is a strength, showing that psychology is becoming more inclusive and representative.
Despite this, the majority of published psychological research is still Western — so more progress is needed.
What is gender bias in psychology? (AO1)
• Gender bias occurs when psychological research or theories favor one gender over the other, often resulting in inaccurate or incomplete conclusions.
• Alpha Bias occurs when research exaggerates gender differences, often portraying one gender as superior or more capable than the other (e.g., research claiming women are more emotionally unstable).
• Beta Bias occurs when researchers minimize or ignore gender differences, often treating men and women as if they are the same despite biological and social differences.
Asch’s conformity studies only used men → generalised to all. Later research (e.g., Mori & Arai) found women conform more in certain settings.
How does gender bias apply to real-life scenarios? (AO2)
• Psychological Disorders: Gender bias in psychological research has historically led to women being misdiagnosed or treated differently. For example, women’s depression symptoms were once considered a sign of hysteria rather than a legitimate mood disorder.
• Workplace Gender Roles: Gender bias in research has influenced policies and practices in organizations, leading to assumptions about women’s roles in the workplace and their career trajectories.
What are the strengths and limitations of gender bias in psychology? (AO3)
Strengths:
• Increased Awareness: The identification of gender bias has led to reforms in research methodology and a push for more gender-neutral studies that accurately reflect the experiences of both men and women.
• Feminist Psychology: Feminist psychology has made important contributions by questioning gendered assumptions and highlighting how social and cultural factors shape gender roles and behavior.
Limitations:
• Reinforces Stereotypes: Gender bias can reinforce harmful stereotypes about both men and women, further entrenching social inequalities.
• Underrepresentation of Women in Research: Historically, male researchers have dominated the field, leading to studies that do not reflect women’s experiences or perspectives, which can impact the generalizability of findings.
What is free will in psychology? (AO1)
• Free will is the belief that humans have the capacity to make choices and decisions independently of external influences or internal compulsions. It suggests that behavior is self-determined.
• This view aligns with humanistic psychology, which emphasizes personal agency and individual choice as key elements of psychological health.
What is determinism in psychology? (AO1)
• Determinism is the view that human behavior is shaped by forces beyond an individual’s control, such as genetics, environment, or unconscious drives. It challenges the idea of free will.
• There are different types of determinism, including biological determinism, psychic determinism, and environmental determinism (e.g., behaviorism, which argues that all behavior is a result of environmental stimuli and reinforcement).
How do free will and determinism apply to real-life scenarios? (AO2)
• Criminal Justice: The debate influences how we view criminal behavior. For example, determinism might lead to the argument that criminals are not fully responsible for their actions due to biological or environmental factors, while free will suggests individuals are accountable for their behavior.
• Therapy and Treatment: Understanding free will and determinism helps shape therapeutic approaches. For example, free will supports therapies that focus on changing thought patterns, while determinism might lead to treatment focusing on changing external factors or brain chemistry.
What are the strengths and limitations of free will and determinism in psychology? (AO3)
Strengths:
• Free Will: Provides individuals with a sense of empowerment and responsibility for their actions, which is important in therapeutic contexts.
• Determinism: Has practical applications in areas like psychology and psychiatry, where understanding the underlying causes of behavior can lead to better interventions and treatments.
Limitations:
• Free Will: Critics argue that free will is an illusion, as our choices may be influenced by unconscious motives or social pressures, thus undermining the argument for complete autonomy.
• Determinism: Determinism can be seen as overly reductionist, ignoring the role of conscious decision-making and free will in shaping behavior.
What is the Nature vs. Nurture debate in psychology? (AO1)
• Nature: The idea that genetics and biological factors shape behavior. For example, mental disorders like schizophrenia have genetic components, where individuals with a family history are at greater risk.
• Nurture: The belief that behavior is influenced by environmental factors such as upbringing, experiences, and learning. For instance, phobias can develop through classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Little Albert’s fear of white rats (Watson & Rayner).
How does the Nature vs. Nurture debate apply to real-life scenarios? (AO2)
• Nature: A person with a genetic predisposition for depression may have a higher likelihood of developing it, even without environmental triggers.
• Nurture: Someone raised in an abusive environment may develop anxiety disorders, showing the impact of early experiences on mental health.
What are the strengths and limitations of the Nature vs. Nurture debate? (AO3)
• Strengths:
• Nature: Research on twin studies (e.g., Joseph) suggests genetic influence on traits like intelligence and mental disorders.
• Nurture: The work of Bandura on social learning theory shows that behaviors like aggression are learned from the environment.
• Limitations:
• Nature: The concept of genetic determinism, which oversimplifies the complexity of human behavior, ignoring environmental influences.
• Nurture: Environmental explanations may neglect biological factors, making it difficult to isolate the effects of nurture alone.
What is the difference between determinism and free will? (AO1)
• Determinism: The belief that behavior is caused by prior factors such as genetics, upbringing, or social environment, making it predictable. For example, a person with a criminal background may be determined by their environment.
• Free Will: The belief that individuals have the capacity to make choices independent of deterministic factors. This view aligns with humanistic psychology, where individuals are seen as having control over their behavior
How does the Determinism vs. Free Will debate apply to real-life scenarios? (AO2)
• Determinism: A person with a history of abuse may engage in criminal behavior, suggesting their actions were shaped by their past experiences.
• Free Will: An individual with mental health issues may choose to seek therapy, demonstrating the capacity to make autonomous decisions to improve their well-being.
What are the strengths and limitations of the Determinism vs. Free Will debate? (AO3)
• Strengths:
• Determinism: Helps explain behavior in a scientific, predictable way, particularly in understanding mental health disorders.
• Free Will: Emphasizes personal responsibility, empowering individuals to change their lives, which is beneficial in therapy (e.g., CBT).
• Limitations:
• Determinism: Can undermine personal accountability, making individuals feel powerless to change their behavior.
• Free Will: Can be seen as unrealistic because many behaviors are influenced by unconscious and environmental factors beyond conscious control.
What is the Holism vs. Reductionism debate in psychology? (AO1)
• Holism: The belief that human behavior should be viewed as a whole, not broken down into smaller components. For instance, Gestalt psychology emphasizes the holistic perception of objects, considering the whole experience instead of individual stimuli.
• Reductionism: The belief that behavior can be explained by breaking it down into its simplest components. For example, biological reductionism suggests that mental illnesses can be explained by abnormalities in brain chemistry.
How does the Holism vs. Reductionism debate apply to real-life scenarios? (AO2)
• Holism: In treating a patient with depression, a holistic approach considers psychological, social, and biological factors to address the condition comprehensively.
• Reductionism: Biological treatments like antidepressants focus on altering brain chemistry, emphasizing a reductionist approach to mental health.
What are the strengths and limitations of the Holism vs. Reductionism debate? (AO3)
• Strengths:
• Holism: Holistic approaches consider the complexity of human behavior, improving therapy outcomes, as seen in CBT and other integrative therapies.
• Reductionism: Allows for a clear, scientific explanation of behaviors, particularly in neurobiology (e.g., serotonin’s role in depression).
• Limitations:
• Holism: Can be difficult to test and operationalize, making it harder to apply in scientific research.
• Reductionism: Oversimplifies human behavior, ignoring the role of context and environmental factors.
What is the difference between the Idiographic and Nomothetic approaches? (AO1)
• Idiographic: Focuses on the individual and their unique experience, often using qualitative methods like case studies (e.g., Freud’s case studies of patients).
• Nomothetic: Seeks to establish general laws or principles by studying large groups of people, using quantitative methods (e.g., surveys and experiments).
How do the Idiographic and Nomothetic approaches apply to real-life scenarios? (AO2)
• Idiographic: A psychologist might conduct a case study to explore an individual’s response to therapy, providing insights into their specific needs.
• Nomothetic: Researchers might survey large populations to identify patterns of behavior, such as the correlation between sleep deprivation and cognitive performance.
What are the strengths and limitations of the Idiographic vs. Nomothetic debate? (AO3)
• Strengths:
• Idiographic: Provides deep insights into individual experiences, as shown in case studies like HM, which offer valuable unique information.
• Nomothetic: Produces generalizable results that can inform policies and treatments across populations, such as through large-scale surveys on mental health.
• Limitations:
• Idiographic: Findings are difficult to generalize to the broader population, limiting the scope of its conclusions.
• Nomothetic: Can overlook individual differences, reducing the personal relevance of treatments or interventions.
What are the key ethical issues in psychological research? (AO1)
• Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the nature of the study and consent to take part. Deception is only permissible if justified.
• Confidentiality: Participants’ personal data must be kept private.
• Protection from Harm: Researchers must ensure participants are not exposed to undue stress, physical harm, or psychological distress.
• Debriefing: After the study, participants should be given a full explanation of the study’s purpose and any deception used.
How do ethical issues apply to real-life scenarios in psychology research? (AO2)
• Informed Consent: A participant in an experiment on memory must be aware they will be tested on recall and give consent to participate.
• Confidentiality: In therapy, client confidentiality ensures their treatment information is not shared without consent.
