issues and debates Flashcards
A01: What is universality?
Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences
of experience and upbringing.
A01: What is gender bias?
Psychological theories/ studies do not represent the experiences and behaviours of one gender (usually girls/ women).
A01: define androcentrism
‘Normal’ behaviour/experience is equated with men’s behaviour experience, so women’s behaviour/experience is judged as abnormal or deviant or is pathologised.
An example of beta bias research
Taylor et al (2000) Tend and Befriend vs Fight or Flight
-Early research into fight or flight did just that - it assumed that both males and females respond to threatening situations with fight or flight.
More recently, Shelley Taylor et al. (2000) claimed that this is not true and described the tend and befriend response. The love hormone Oxytocin is more plentiful in women (present in smaller quantities in men) and it seems that women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production.
This reduces the fight or flight response and enhances a preference for ‘tend and befriend’ (an evolved response for looking after others).
Example of Androcentrism
PMS: Premenstrual syndrome
(Brescoll and Uhlam, 2008).
Many feminist commentators have obiected to the diagnostic category of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) on the grounds that it stereotypes and trivialises female behaviour. Critics claim that PMS is a social construction which medicalises female emotions, especially anger, by explaining this in hormonal terms. Male anger, on the other hand, is often seen as a rational response to external pressures
A03: (GB) SOCIAL EXPLANATIONS CLASSED AS FACTS
One limitation is that gender differences often presented as fixed and enduring (i.e. alpha bias) when they are not.Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) presented the findings of several gender studies which concluded that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability .They suggested that these differences are ‘hardwired’ into the brain before birth.
Such findings become widely reported and seen as facts. Recently Joel et al. (2015) used brain scans and found no such sex differences in brain structure or processing.It is possible that the data from Maccoby and Jacklin was popularised because it fitted existing stereotypes of girls as ‘speakers’ and boys as ‘doers.
This suggests that we should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they might be explained better as social stereotypes.
A03: (GB) STILL SOME BIO DIFFERENCES
Counterpoint
However, this does not mean that psychologists should avoid studying possible gender differences in the brain.
E.g. research by Ingalhalkar er al. (2014) suggests that the popular social stereotype that women are better at Multitasking may have some biological truth to it.
It seems that a woman’s brain may benefit from bitter connections between the right and the left hemisphere than in a man’s brain
This suggests that there may be biological differences but we still should be wary of exaggerating the effect they may have on behaviour.
A01: define beta bias
Psychological research that minimises/ ignores gender differences, assuming that findings derived from one gender (usually men) apply to everyone (e.g. Kohlberg)
A01: define alpha bias
Psychological research that exaggerates gender differences - may heighten value of girls/ women, but usually devalues in relation to boys men (e.g. Freud).
A03: (GB) BIAS LEADS TO SEXISM IN RESEARCH
Another limitation is that gender bias promotes sexism the research process. Women remain underrepresented in university departments, particularly in
science. Although psychology’s undergraduate intake is mainly of women, lecturers in psychology departments are more likely to be men (Murphy et al. 2014). This means research is more likely to be conducted by men and this may disadvantage participants who are women.
E.g. a male researcher may expect women to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson 1995) and such expectations are likely to mean that women underperform in research studies.
This means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender-biased and need to be reconsidered.
A03: (GB) BIAS IN PUBLISHING DATA
A further limitation is that research challenging gender biases may not be published.
Formanowicz et al. (2018) analysed more than 1000 articles relating to gender bias, published over 8 years.
They found that research on gender bias is funded less often and is published by less prestigious journals.
The consequence of this is that fewer scholars become aware of it or apply it within their own work.
The researchers argued that this still held true when gender bias was compared with other forms of bias, such as ethnic bias.
This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias.
A03 : (GB) Understanding Bias
Gender-blased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices. In any domain in which men set the standard of normalcy, as Carol Tavris (1993) puts it, ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal? Thus, gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women.
That said, many modern researchers now recognise the effect their own values. and assumptions have on the nature of their work (known as reflexivity). Rather than seeing such bias as a problem that may threaten the objective status of their work, they embrace it as a crucial aspect of the research process. For instance, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, Claire Dambrin and Caroline Lambert (2008) include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their reading of events.
A01: What is culture bias?
A tendency to interpret phenomena through the lens of ones own culture, ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour
A01: What is ethnocentrism?
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. In its extreme form it is the belief in the funenonitof one’s own culture which may lead prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures
A01: what is cultural relativism?
The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
A01: define imposed etic
An etic approach looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal.
A01: emic approach
An emic approach functions from inside a culture and idenifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.
example of etic approach
Ainsworth and Bell’s research is an example of an imposed etic - they studied behaviour inside one culture (America) and then assumed their ideal attachment type (and the method for assessing it) could be applied universally - STRANGE SITUATION
Example of emic
Bartiltt (1932) memory experiment. He mentioned the abilities of Swai herdsmen to recall individual characteristics of their cattle, explaining that Swai culture revolves around possession and care of cattle.
A01: Define determinism
The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something
A01: Hard determinism
Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control. (fatality)
A01: Soft determinism
All events, including human behaviour, have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of coercion. In contrast with hard determinism.
A01: Types of determinism
Biological determinism - The belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we cannot control.
Environmental determinism - The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control.
Psychic determinism - The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot
A01: Define Holism
An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts (which is the reductionist approach).
A01: Define Reductionism
The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts.
A01: Types of Reductionism
Biological reductionism - A form of reductionism which attempts to explain social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological level in terms of the actions of genes, hormones, etc.).
Environmental reductionism - The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience.
A03: HOLISM NOT PRACTICAL
One LIMITATION of the holism approach is that it may lack practical value
Holistic accounts of human behaviour tend to become hard to use as they become more complex.
This can present researchers with a practical dilemma. If we accept, from a humanistic perspective, that there are many different factors that contribute to depression (the person’s past, their present relationships, their job and family circumstances) then it becomes difficult to know which is most influential. It is then difficult to know which to prioritise as the basis of therapy, for instance.
This suggests that holistic accounts may lack practical value (whereas reductionist accounts may be more practical).
A03: REDUCTIONIST SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
One STRENGTH of reductionist approaches (and limitation of the holistic approach) is that they often form the basis of a scientific approach.
In order to conduct well-controlled research we need to operationalise the
variables to be studied - to break target behaviours down into constituent parts.
This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations (behavioural categories) in a way that is objective and reliable. E.g., research on attachment (the Strange Situation) operationalised component behaviours such as separation anxiety.
This scientific approach gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences.
A03: REDUCTIONIST PARTIAL EXPLANATION(Counterpoint)
Counterpoint
Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena, leading to reduced validity. Explanations that operate at the level of the gene or neurotransmitter do not include an analysis of the social context within which behaviour occurs - and this is where the behaviour may derive its meaning.
E.g. the physiological processes involved in pointing one’s finger will be the same regardless of the context. However, an analysis of these will not tell us why the finger is pointed - it might be to draw attention to some object or person, as an act
of aggression, etc.
This suggests that reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation.
A03: CANT EXPLAIN HIGHER LEVEL BEHAVIOURS
One LIMITATION of reductionism is that some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level.
Often, there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood in terms of the individual group members.
E.g. the effects of conformity to social roles in the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison study could not be understood by observing the participants as individuals.
It was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important.
There is no conformity ‘gene’ so social processes like conformity can only be explained at that social level.
This suggests that, for some behaviours, higher level explanations (or even holistic ones) provide a more valid account of
A03: THE ‘EXPLANATORY GAP’
One LIMITATION of reductionism is that it explains consciousness in terms of brain activity
A reductionist account of consciousness would argue this is the case, that we are thinking machines.
This is the basis of cognitive neuroscience - that cognitive processes, (what we think and feel), are associated with physical processes in the brain.
However, what neuroscientists struggle to explain is the subjective experience of the same neural process. E.g., thinking about the colour blue involves exactly the same region and activity in the brain as thinking about the colour red, yet the thought we experience is different.
This is referred to as the ‘explanatory gap’ in brain science (Levine 1983) and may suggest that thinking is at least one step beyond what is happening in the brain (activity).
The mind and the body/brain are not one and the same but influence each other in many complex ways
that are not yet fully understood. This suggests that not all aspects of consciousness, particularly individual differences in experience, can be explained by brain activity.
A03: INFLUENTIAL STUDIES CULTURALLY BIASED. (CULTURE BIAS)
One LIMITATION is that many of the most influential studies in psychology are culturally-biased.
Cultural bias is a feature of many classic studies of social influence.
E.g. both Asch’s and Milgram’s original studies were conducted exclusively with US participants (most white, middle-class students).
Replications of these studies in different countries produced quite different results. E.g. Asch-type experiments in collectivist cultures found significantly higher rates of conformity than the original studies in the US, an individualist culture (e.g. Smith and Bond 1993).
This suggests our understanding of topics such as social influence should only be applied to individualist cultures.
A03: INDIVIDUALIST-COLLECTIVIST NOT SO DIFFERENT (CULTURE BIAS)
Counterpoint
However, in an age of increased media globalisation, it is argued that the individualist-collectivist distinction no longer applies.
The traditional argument is that individualist countries (US) value individuals and independence, whilst collectivist cultures (India, China) value society and the needs of the
group.
However, Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15 studies that compared the US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism - describing the distinction as lazy and simplistic.
This suggests that cultural bias in research may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research.
A03: CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY (CULTURE BIAS)
One STRENGTH is the emergence of cultural psychology.
Cultural (sometimes multicultural) psychology is, according to Cohen (2017), the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience.
This is an emerging field and incorporates work from researchers in other disciplines including anthropology, sociology and political science.
Cultural psychologists strive to avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking an emic approach and conducting research from inside a culture, often alongside local researchers using culturally-based techniques.
Cross-cultural research tends to focus on just two cultures instead of larger scale studies with maybe eight or more countries/cultures.
This suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and are taking steps to avoid it, is not much of an issue now.
A03: ETHNIC STEREOTYPING (CULTURE BIAS)
One LIMITATION of cultural bias in psychology is it has led to prejudice against groups of people.
Gould (1981) explained how the first intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in the US.
Psychologists used the opportunity of World War I to pilot their first IQ tests on 1.75 million army recruits. Many of the iterns on the test were ethnocentric, e.g. assuming everyone would know the names of the US presidents.
The result was that recruits from southeastern Europe and African-Americans received the lowest scores. The poor was instead used to inform racist discourse about the genetic inferiority of particular cultural and ethnic groups.
Ethnic minorities were deemed “mentally unfit and ‘feeble-minded’ in comparison to the white majority and were denied educational and professional opportunities as a result.
This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination towards certain cultural and ethnic groups.
A03: ETHNIC STEREOTYPING (CULTURE BIAS)
One LIMITATION of cultural bias in psychology is it has led to prejudice against groups of people.
Gould (1981) explained how the first intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in the US.
Psychologists used the opportunity of World War I to pilot their first IQ tests on 1.75 million army recruits. Many of the iterns on the test were ethnocentric, e.g. assuming everyone would know the names of the US presidents.
The result was that recruits from southeastern Europe and African-Americans received the lowest scores. The poor was instead used to inform racist discourse about the genetic inferiority of particular cultural and ethnic groups.
Ethnic minorities were deemed “mentally unfit and ‘feeble-minded’ in comparison to the white majority and were denied educational and professional opportunities as a result.
This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination towards certain cultural and ethnic groups.
A03: RELATIVISM VERSUS UNIVERSALITY (CULTURE BIAS)
One of the BENEFITS of conducting cross-cultural research is that it may challenge dominant individualist ways of thinking and viewing the world.
Being able to see that some of the knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not hardwired (le. social rather than biological) may provide a better understanding of human nature.
However, it should not be assumed that all psychology is culturally relative and that there is no such thing as universal human behaviour.
Research (eg Ekman 1989) suggests that basic facial expressions for emotions (such as happiness or disgust) are the same all over the human and animal world.
Criticisms of attachment research should not obscure the fact that some features of human attachment (such as imitation and interactional synchrony) are universal
This suggests a full understanding of human behaviour requires both, but for too long the universal view dominated.
A03: PRACTICAL VALUE (FREE WILL VS DETERMINISM)
One STRENGTH of free will (rather than determinism) is its practical value.
The common-sense view is that we exercise free choice in our everyday lives on a daily basis. However, even if this is not the case, thinking we do exercise free choice can improve our mental health.
A study by Roberts et al. (2000) looked at adolescents who had a strong belief in fatalism-that their lives were ‘decided’ by events outside of their control.
The study found that these adolescents were at significantly greater risk of developing depression. It seems that people who exhibit an external, rather than internal, locus of control are less likely to be optimistic.
This suggests that, even if we do not have free will, the fact that we
believe we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour.
A03: EVIDENCE AGAINST FREE WILL (FREE WILL VS DETERMINISM)
One LIMITATION of free will is that brain scan evidence does not
support it but does support determinism.
Libet et al. (1983) instructed participants to choose a random moment to flick their wrist while he measured activity in their brain (‘readiness potential).
Participants had to say when they felt the conscious will to move.
Libet found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came around half a second before the participant consciously felt they had decided to move.
This may be interpreted as meaning that even our most basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them
A03: FLAWED EVIDENCE FOR DETERMINISM (FREE WILL VS DETERMINISM)
Counterpoint
However, Libet’s findings showing that the brain is involved in decision-making is not surprising in fact, just as we would expect.
Just because the action comes before the conscious awareness of the decision to act, doesn’t mean that there was no decision to act - just that the decision to act took time to reach consciousness. Our conscious awareness of the decision is simply a ‘read-out’ of our unconscious decision-making.
This suggests this evidence is not appropriate as a challenge to free will.
A03: AGAINST THE LAW (FREE WILL VS DETERMINISM)
One LIMITATION of determinism (and strength of free will) is the position of the legal system on responsibility.
The hard determinist stance is that individual choice is not the cause of behaviour.
This is not consistent with the way in which our legal system operates. In a court of law, offenders are held responsible for their actions.
Indeed, the main principle of our legal system is that a defendant exercised their free will in committing the crime
This suggests that, in the real world, determinist arguments do not work.
A02: THE INTERACTIONIST APPROACH (NATURE VS NURTURE)
Bowlby (1958) :Claimed that a baby’s attachment type is determined by the warmth and continuity of parental love (an environmental influence).
Kagan (1984): Proposed that a baby’s innate personality (temperament) also affects the attachment relationship. Thus, nature (the child’s temperament), in a real sense, creates nurture (the parents’ response), so environment and heredity interacts
A02: DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL (NATURE VS NURTURE)
This model suggests behaviour is caused by a biological or
environmental vulnerability (diathesis) which Is only expressed
when coupled with a biological or environmental ‘trigger’
(stressor).
A02: EPIGENETICS (NATURE VS NURTURE)
This refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing the genes themselves.
It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment. Epigenetic changes may go on and influence the genetic codes of our children and their children.
Dias and Ressler (2014) gave male lab mice electric shocks every
time they were exposed to the smell of acetophenone, a chemical
used in perfume.
Surprisingly, the rats’ children also feared the smell- even though
they had not been exposed to acetophenone before or received
any shocks. So did their grandchildren.
A01: Define nature
Nature refers to inherited influences, or heredity.
Early nativists such as René Descartes (1596-1650) argued that all
human characteristics - and even some aspects of knowledge - are
innate
A01: define nurture
Nurture refers to the influence of experience and the environment.
Empiricists including the philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth (tabula rasa), which is then shaped by the environment.
A03: USE OF ADOPTION STUDIES (NATURE VS NURTURE)
One STRENGTH of research into the nature nurture debate is the use of adoption studies.
Adoption studies are useful because they separate the competing influences of nature and nurture.
If adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents, this suggests the environment is the bigger influence. Whereas, if adopted children are more similar to their biological parents (no influence on their environment), then genetic factors are presumed to dominate.
A meta-analysis of adoption studies by Rhee and Waldman (2002) found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression.
This shows how research can separate the influences of nature and nurture.
A03: NATURE-NURTURE NOT SEPARATE
Counterpoint
However, this research may not be applicable to the debate. Nature and nurture are not two entities that can simply be pulled apart.
According to Plomin (1994) people create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature.
Thus, a naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable with children who show similar behaviours and will choose’ their environment accordingly. Then, their chosen companions further influence their development.
Plomin refers to this as niche-picking.
This suggests that it does not make sense to look at evidence of either nature or nurture.
A03: EPIGENETICS (NATURE VS NURTURE)
Another strength of the debate is support for epigenetics.
One example of how environmental effects can span across generations through epigenetic effects, comes from WW2.
In 1944, the Nazis blocked the distribution of food to the Dutch people and 22,000 died of starvation, in what became called the Dutch Hunger Winter.
Susser and Lin (1992) report that women who became pregnant during the famine went on to have low birth weight babies. Whilst this may be unsurprising, what is more interesting is that these babies were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia when they grew up compared to more typical population rates.
This supports the view that the life experiences(traumas) of previous generations can leave epigenetic ‘markers” that influence the health of their offspring.
A03: REAL-WORLD APPLICATION (NATURE VS NURTURE)
A further STRENGTH of the nature-nurture debate is that it has real-world application.
Research suggests that OCD is a highly heritable mental disorder. Eg. Nestadt et al. (2010) put the heritability rate at .76.
Such understanding can inform genetic counselling because it is important to understand that high heritability does not mean it is inevitable that the individual will go on to develop the disorder.
This means that people who have a high genetic risk of OCD because of their family background can receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent this (e.g. learn to manage stress).
This shows that the debate is not just a theoretical one but that it is important, at a practical level, to understand the interaction between nature and nurture.
A03: IMPLICATIONS OF THE DEBATE (NATURE VS NURTURE)
Nativists suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’ in that our genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviour, with little environmental input.
This extreme determinist stance has led to controversy, such as linking ethnicity, genetics and intelligence and the application of eugenic policies.
In contrast - but also controversially - empiricists suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions.
Behaviour shaping, a behaviourist concept, has had practical application in therapy. Desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced, and undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored (Aversion
therapy). Carried to an extreme this could lead to complete social control by the state for the ‘good’of everyone
A01: define the idiographic approach
The idiographic approach suggests that psychology should be the
study of individuals (detailed information will allow us to understand human behaviour better). Through case studies. Usually qualitative data is derived from it.
A02: EXAMPLES OF IDIOGRAPHIC STUDIES
Carl Rogers sought to explain the process of self-development including the role of unconditional positive regard. This was derived from in depth conversations with clients in therapy (humanistic)
Rogers and Maslow described themselves as ‘anti-scientific’, were
interested only in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or ‘self’ (psychodynamic)
Sigmund Freud: Little Hans
Freud’s careful observations of individuals were the basis of his
explanations of human nature, for example the case of Little Hans was used to explain how a phobia might develop.
However, Freud also assumed he had identified universal laws of
behaviour and personality development.
A01: define the nomothetic approach
The nomothetic approach suggests that psychology should be the
study of large and varied groups to make generalisations about what is typical, i.e. establishing norms and general laws. Quantitive data is derived. Highly objective
A02: EXAMPLES OF NOMOTHETIC METHODS
B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning
Studied animals to develop the general laws of learning. His research looked at one aspect of behaviour in a few animals but the main aim was to establish general laws.
Sperry: Split brain research
Biological psychology may use a small sample, such as Roger Sperry’s split-brain research which involved repeated testing and was, in part, the basis for understanding hemispheric lateralisation.
A03: CAN USE IDIOGRAPHIC FOR COMPLETE ACCOUNT
One STRENGTH of the idiographic approach is that it contributes to the nomothetic approach.
The idiographic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation and this provides a global description of one individual.
This may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws.
E.g. a single case may generate hypotheses for further study (HM)
Cases like HM may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding. This suggests that even though the focus is on fewer individuals, the idiographic approach may still help form ‘scientific” laws of behaviour.
A03: CAN USE IDIOGRAPHIC FOR COMPLETE ACCOUNT
One STRENGTH of the idiographic approach is that it contributes to the nomothetic approach.
The idiographic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation and this provides a global description of one individual.
This may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws.
E.g. a single case may generate hypotheses for further study (HM)
Cases like HM may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding. This suggests that even though the focus is on fewer individuals, the idiographic approach may still help form ‘scientific” laws of behaviour.
A03: OPEN TO BIAS (IDIO VS NOMO)
Counterpoint
However, idiographic approach should still acknowledge the narrow and restricted nature of their work. Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as this means there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour. Also, methods associated with the idiographic approach, such as case studies, tend to be the least scientific in that conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretation of the
researcher and, as such, are open to bias. This suggests that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of nomothetic research.
A03: SCIENTIFIC CREDIBILITY (IDIO VS NOMO)
One STRENGTH of both approaches is that they fit with the aims of science.
The processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences, for example establishing objectivity through standardisation, control and statistical testing.
However, researchers using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods. E.g. triangulation is used whereby findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared as a way of increasing their validity.
Also, modern qualitative researchers are careful to reflect upon their own biases and preconceptions as part of the research process (reflexivity).
This suggests that both the nomothetic and idiographic approaches raise psychology’s status as a science.
A03: LOSING THE PERSON ( IDIOVS NOMO)
One LIMITATION of the nomothetic approach is loss of understanding of the individual.
The fact that the nomothetic approach is preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of ‘losing the whole person” within psychology.
E.g. knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who has been diagnosed with the disorder.
Understanding the subjective experience of schizophrenia might well prove useful when it comes to devising appropriate treatment options, for example.
This means, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to ‘experience.
A01: define ethical issues
When a conflict emerges in research, between the rights of participants and the intended aims of the research
A01: define ethical implications
The consequences of any research (studies/theory) in terms of the effects on individual participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded. There may also be consequences on a wider societal level
A01: define social sensitivity
Sieber and Stanley (1988) define socially sensitive research as, ‘studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research’.
A02: EXAMPLES OF ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS (RESEARCH QUES)
Sieber and Stanley (1988) warn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted.
E.g. Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) note how research into relationships has been guilty of a form of ‘heterosexual bias’ where homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms.
A02: EXAMPLE OF SOCIALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCH
Adrian Owen: The mind reader
Owen has discovered a method to communicate with brain-damaged patients who show very little or no conscious activity - they are in a minimally conscious state or a persistent vegetative state Owen’s technique uses fMRI to detect when a patient is saying ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
(He tells patients to think of playing tennis if they want to answer “yes’ and then the motor cortex lights up, or to think about walking around their house if they want to answer ‘no’ and then the memory part of their brain lights up, near the hippocampus).
In the future, this may help clinicians and their patients decide on appropriate treatment plans. It may also help families to communicate with a loved one.
However Owen’s work raises ethical questions. Although his first test patient, Kate, went on to make a partial recovery, most patients did not respond (about 90% didn’t ). Patients may be able to answer a sequence of questions, but this does not tell us the extent to which they are conscious or can make informed decisions.
A03: BENEFITS FOR GROUPS (ETHICS)
One STRENGTH of socially sensitive research is that it can have benefits for the group who have been studied. e.g. is homosexuality.
In 1952 the DSM-1 listed this as a ‘sociopathic personality disorder’ but finally removed it in 1973.
This change has been credited to the Kinsey report which was based on anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour (Kinsey et al. 1948). The report concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour.
The report also included data on interviews with 6000 women and caused outrage at the time because these were topics that no one discussed.
This illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive and they can challenge existing prejudices.
A03: NOT ALWAYS BENEFICIAL (ETHICS)
Counterpoint
However, in some studies there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied, which in some cases could have been anticipated.
E.g. research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found that there is a ‘criminal gene’ (‘The Mobley defence’). If this is true does it mean that someone could be convicted on the basis that they have such a gene or should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible for any wrongdoing? This suggests that, when researching socially sensitive topics, there is a need for very careful consideration of the possible outcomes and their
consequences.
A03: REAL-WORLD APPLICATION (ETHICS)
Another STRENGTH is that certain groups (e.g. policymakers) rely on research related to socially sensitive issues.
The government looks to research when developing important social policies, (related to child care, education, mental health provision, crime) It is clearly preferable to base such policies on scientific research rather than politically-motivated views.
For this reason in the UK there are independent groups such as the ONS (Office for National Statistics) who describe themselves as being responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UK’s economy, society and population. Such data is used in psychological research.
This means that psychologists have an important role to play in
providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics.
A03: POOR RESEARCH DESIGN (ETHICS)
One LIMITATION is that poor research design may lead to erroneous findings which, once in the public arena, continue to have an impact.
E.g. Burt’s research because, even after the fraud was exposed, the 11+ continued to be used.
Indeed, the 11+ is still used as a selection tool in parts of the UK today (e.g. Kent,Belfast).
Similarly, access to many independent schools is based on a child’s performance in an entrance exam taken in Year 6 (age 11) and is likely based on the same reasoning - that genetic potential has revealed itself by this age.
Therefore any research on socially sensitive topics needs to be planned with the greatest care to ensure the findings are valid because of the enduring effects on particular groups of people.
