issues and debates Flashcards
gender bias
androcentrism - psychology and society is male-dominated, so our world view tends to be focused on men
alpha bias exaggerates the differences and results in one gender (usually women) being devalued
for example, Freuds psychoanalytic theory viewed felinity as failed masculinity; women had penis envy and were morally inferior
beta bias minimises differences, so women needs are ignored
for example, dress research was based on male responses and it was assumed women responded in the same way; Taylor et al argued for a different tend-and-befriends response
universality can be achieved by acknowledging differences without superiority, such as ethic of care versus justice, or fight-or-flight versus tend-and-befriend
cultural bias
bias produces differences that don’t exist (Hare-Mustin and Marecek)
example of alpha bias- individualist versus collectivist cultures; differences not found in meta-analysis of conformist behaviour (Takano and Osaka)
example of beta bias- Western-based IQ tests used to measure other cultural groups who then appear less intelligent (an imposed metic)
ethnocentrism- assuming ones own beliefs are the correct ones
alpha bias because difference leads to devaluing the other groups (e.g. seeing attachment as related to independent, a western preference)
beta bias because of assumptions that there are not differences in intelligence and therefore it is acceptable to use Western IQ tests
cultural relativism- relating the behaviour of cultural groups to their own standards
beta bias because may mistakenly assume symptoms of mental disorder are universal (e.g. hearing voices); results in misdiagnosis
alpha bias if psychologists assume there are differences and overlook universals
gender bias evaluation
feminist psychology- there are real differences, but social stereotypes cause more damages than any real biological differences; by identifying such stereotypes the balance can be redressed
bias in research methods- poor methodology (single-sex samples, male-only experimenters) may disadvantage one gender
revser alpha bias- change preconceptions with research that over-values women e.g. women are better learners (Cornwell et al)
avoiding a beta bias- equal rights may disadvantage women because they do have different needs, e.g. equal parental leave ignores special biological demands on women
assumptions need to be examined- Darwin’s theory of sexual selection had been challenged as rooted in victorian ideas about female coyness
cultural bias evaluation
indigenous psychologies, each rooted in their own culture, such as afrocentrism that seeks to understand the culture of Africans
the mic-etic distinction- indigenous psychology is an epic approach; an epic (universal) approach can use indigenous researchers for data collection (e.g. Buss et al)
bias in research methods- samples in textbooks mainly American (Smith and Bond) and mainly middle-class young adults (Sears, Henrich et al)
consequences of cultural bias- US army IQ tests led to enduring and damaging stereotypes about black and immigrant populations (Gould)
the worldwide psychology community meets much more now than 50 years ago, which should reduce ethnocentrism and cultural bias
free will
humanistic approach- self determination is required for mental health (Rogers), otherwise can’t take control of negative behaviours
moral responsibility- adults are accountable for their behaviour regardless of innate factors or poor early environment
free will evaluation
free will is an illusion and a culturally-relative concept- being able to make choice does not mean you are free and also making such choices does not apply in collectivist cultures
research to challenge free will - Libet et al. found brain activity before a decision was made; however, trepan and miller found it is a readiness potential, not an intention to move
determinism
hard determinism- all behaviour is determined, there is no free will
soft determinism- biological factor and past experience present a range of choices; we feel more free in situations with little constraint
biological determinism- individual genes (e.g. IGF2R role in IQ hill et al) or neurotransmitters (dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia)
environmental determinism- all behaviour caused by previous experiences, as in classical and operant conditioning stimulus-response can explain phobias, aggression and gender devlopment
psychic determinism- adult personality is caused by a mix of innate drives (libido) and early experience (frustration or indulgence)
scientific determinism- science seeks causal relationships by manipulating an IV and observing the effect on a DV, e.g. Harlow’s attachment experiment
determinism evaluation
genetic versus environmental determinism - twin studies show both genes and environment contribute, so an interactionist rather than determinist position is more realistic
scientific determinism- even in the physical sciences relationships are regarded as probabilistic (chaos theory); determinist research in psychology oversimplifies human behaviour
does it matter? a determinist position suggests criminals might excuse their behaviour on genetic grounds or that mental disorder must be treated using drugs or conditioning
nature-nurture
nature - innate influences which may appear at any stage of life
genetic explanations - MZ twins more likely to both develop schizophrenia than DZ twins (Joseph)
evolutionary explanations - attachment is adaptive because it aids survival and reproduction (Bowlby); it relies on genetic transmission
nurture - the social and physical environment/experiences; we are born as a blank state
behaviourism - classical and operant conditioning can explain the formation of attachment
social learning theory - the urge to be aggressive may be biological, but we learn how to express this through direct and indirect reinforcement (Bandura)
other explanations, e.g. Bateson’s double bind theory of schizophrenia is based on experience
nature-nurture evaluation
Nature and nurture cannot be separated - like the length and width of a rectangle (Hebb), or phenylketonuria which is genetic but not expressed if given the right diet
Diathesis-stress - a person’s nature (diathesis) is only expressed under certain conditions of nurture (stressor)
nature affects nurture - indirect genetic influences: reactive (one’s behaviour changes the environment), passive (parents influence the home environment) or active (niche picking)
nurture affects nature - neural plasticity, as in Maguire et al.’s study of spatial memory in taxi drivers, or Blakemore and cooper’s study of perception in kittens
Epigenetics - material in each cell that acts as. switches to turn genes on and off, which is passed on to subsequent generations. explains why MZ twins and clones are not identical
holism
cannot predict behaviour of whole system from individual parts
Gestalt psychology - concerned with perception; the whole does not equal the sum of the parts
humanistic psychology - we react as a whole rather than a set of S-R links
cognitive psychology - connectionist networks for memory behave as a whole
reductionism
levels of explanation - highest = cultural/social, middle = psychological, lowest = biological
biological reductionism - behaviour explained in terms of hormones, neurotransmitters, brain (e.g. dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia).
environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism - behaviour such as attachment explained in terms of a stimulus (food/mother) causing a response (pleasure)
experimental reductionism - use of operationalised variables in experimental research
holism and reductionism evaluation
danger of lower levels of explanation - the real meaning of behaviour may be overlooked, e.g. prescribing drugs for hyperactivity which might be due to family problems
biological reductionism - drug therapies have only had partial success and may block possibility of more successful psychological therapies
environmental reductionism - may be appropriate for non-human animals but ignores influence from higher levels, e.g. emotion
experimental reductionism - have been productive but may not represent everyday life, e.g. research on eyewitness testimony by Yuille and Cutshall didn’t support experimental research
the mind-body problem - materialism assumes that physical states (e.g. REM electrical activity) cause mental events (dreams); alternatively dualists suggest mind and body interact in both directions; the mind can cause physical changes
idiographic approach
focus on individuals and their unique characteristics as a way to understand human behaviour
qualitative research - focus on depth (details) of one individual; use of qualitative methods (e.g. unstructured interviews, thematic analysis)
examples- Freud’s case studies (e.g. little Hans), humanistic research into subjective experience, Allport’s letters from Jenny
nomothetic approach
study of large number of people to establish laws about behaviour
qualitative research- large data sets used to work out averages and conduct statistical tests, producing normative data about behaviour
examples - biological approach (general principles, e.g. stress response), behavioural approach (laws of conditioning), cognitive psychology (case studies have to be used for abnormal behaviour), Eysenck’s personality theory
