Issues and Debates

Question 1

What is gender bias?

Answer 1

Research or a theory that offers a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women.

Question 2

What is alpha bias?

Answer 2

Attempts to exaggerate or overestimate the differences between the genders

Question 3

What is beta bias?

Answer 3

Attempts to downplay or underestimate the differences between the genders

Question 4

What is androcentrism?

Answer 4

When men’s behaviour is the standard against which women’s is compared. Female behaviour is often judged ‘abnormal’ or ‘inferior’ by comparison

Question 5

What is androcentrism?

Answer 5

When men’s behaviour is the standard against which women’s is compared. Female behaviour is often judged ‘abnormal’ or ‘inferior’ by comparison

Question 6

What is culture bias?

Answer 6

Overlooking cultural differences by looking at human behaviour from the perspective of one’s own culture

Question 7

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 7

A type of culture bias that involves judging other cultures by the values of one’s own culture. Can lead to the assumption that one ethnic group is superior to another

Question 8

What is cultural relativism

Answer 8

Idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts

Question 9

What is the etic approach?

Answer 9

Studying behaviour across many cultures to find universal human behaviours

Question 10

What is the emic approach?

Answer 10

Studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to that culture

Question 11

What are ethical implications?

Answer 11

The impact psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people. This is at a societal level, influencing public policy and/or the way certain groups of people are viewed

Question 12

Examples of different types of gender bias in psychology

Answer 12

Alpha bias: Freud argued that girls do not identify with their mothers as strongly ( no Oedipus complex) so develop weaker superegos

Beta bias: Later stress research shows women produce a tend and befriend response rather than fight or flight. Milgrim also only used males

Androcentrism: The DSM-III-R (70s) proposes ‘Masochistic Personality Disorder’ for women. Symptoms included self-sacrifice or rejecting opportunities for pleasure which are behaviours men do not tend to show

Question 13

Examples of cultural bias in psychology

Answer 13

The Strange Situation is criticised for being ethnocentric. It suggested that the behaviours demonstrated in a ‘securely attached’ American infant were ideal. This lead to a misinterpretation of child rearing practices in other cultures

Question 14

Example of the ethical implications of a study

Answer 14

Milgrams research showed Germans were not different and may have helped change the perception of those who followed Hitler as ‘evil’. However it also had been useful reducing the negative labels attached to a nation

Question 15

Example of the ethical implications of a theory

Answer 15

Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory has meant that children now have a ‘key worker’ at nursery to develop a positive internal working model and hospitals do not have visiting hours for parents.

However it also encouraged the view that the mothers place is at home with her children which can make women feel guilty returning to work following childbirth

Question 16

What is free will?

Answer 16

The idea that humans can make choices and their behaviour and thoughts are not determined by biological or external forces.

Question 17

What is determinism?

Answer 17

The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces, rather than an individual’s will to do something

Question 18

What is soft determinism?

Answer 18

The view that behaviours may be predictable but there is also room for personal choice from a limited range of possibilities. A ‘restricted’ free will

Question 19

What is hard determinism?

Answer 19

The view that all behaviour is caused by something, so free will is an illusion

Question 20

What is biological determinism?

Answer 20

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal, or evolutionary) influences that cannot be controlled

Question 21

What is environmental determinism?

Answer 21

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that cannot be controlled

Question 22

What is psychic determinism?

Answer 22

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that cannot be controlled

Question 23

What does the scientific emphasis on causal explanations focus on?

Answer 23

Science aims to find the cause of things. It is based on the principle that every event has a cause which can be explained using general laws. It is therefore deterministic

Question 24

How does determinism differ from reductionism?

Answer 24

Determinism states that human behaviour is controlled by internal or external forces, whereas reductionism attempts to explain human behaviour using one factor

Question 25

What is nature?

Answer 25

The view that behaviour is the product of innate biological factors

Question 26

What is nurture?

Answer 26

The view that behaviour is the product of environmental influences

Question 27

Why is the relative importance of heredity and environment important?

Answer 27

Heredity and environment are involved in the development of behaviour as there has never been a concordance rate of 100%. Therefore it makes little sense to try and separate the two so psychologists take an interactionist approach

Question 28

How does the nature-nurture debate apply to the approaches?

Answer 28

The biological approach is most nature as it focuses on genetics. The psychodynamic approach has innate drives (nature) and social upbringing (nature). The cognitive approach has innate mental processes (nature) that are changed by environment (nurture). Humanistic approach emphasises physical needs (nature) and society’s influence on self-perception (nature). Behaviourist is fully nurture as all behaviour is learned through environment

Question 29

What is holism?

Answer 29

An argument or theory which suggests psychologists should only study an invisible system, rather than its constituent parts

Question 30

What is reductionism?

Answer 30

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts

Question 31

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 31

A form of reductionism that attempts to explain social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological level

Question 32

What is environmental reductionism!

Answer 32

A form of reductionism that attempts to explain phenomena based on stimulus-response bonds and learned associations

Question 33

What does levels of explanation suggest?

Answer 33

The same phenomena can be explained at many different levels. The lowest level might consider physiological and biological factors. The middle level would consider psychological concepts (cognitive or behavioural). The highest levels would consider social and cultural factors

Question 34

What is the idiographic approach?

Answer 34

This approach to research focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour

Question 35

What methods does the idiographic approach use?

Answer 35

It uses qualitative research methods such as case studies, unstructured interviews and thematic analysis to allow an in-depth insight. Humanism is the only idiographic approach

Question 36

What is the nomothetic approach?

Answer 36

This approach attempts to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws

Question 37

What methods does the nomothetic approach use?

Answer 37

Used quantitative methods such as experiments, correlations and psychometric testing. These methods are regarded as scientific.

Question 38

What is the overlap between idiographic and nomothetic?

Answer 38

- The psychodynamic approach uses idiographic methods such as the Little Hans case study and creates universal laws such as the psychosexual stages

Question 39

Examples of the different types of gender bias on psychology

Answer 39

- Alpha bias: Frued argued that girls develop weaker superegos as they don’t suffer Oedipus conflict - Beta bias: fight-or-flight carried out with male animals whereas females produce a tend-and-befriend response - Androcentrism: ‘Masochistic Personality Disorder’ for women as they show behaviours that men typically don’t (self-sacrifice)

Question 40

Eval: Solutions identified because of gender bias

Answer 40

1. Modern researchers recognise effect of assumptions (reflexivity). Embrace gender bias as a crucial aspect of the research process. Dambrin and Labert 2. Criteria that should be adhered to. Women should be studies with meaningful real-life contexts. Diversity within women. 3. How to reduce biological differences. Eagly- females are less effective leaders. Development of training programmes for women.

Question 41

Eval: Consequences because of gender bias

Answer 41

1. Misleading assumptions about female behaviour and validate discriminatory practices. Scientific justification to deny women opportunities. Impacts the lives of real women 2. Female concern may not be reflected in research as a lack of women in senior level positions in psychological institutions. Females in lab experiments may be disadvantaged as male researcher have the power to label them as unreasonable and d irrational

Question 42

Eval: Solutions identified because of culture bias

Answer 42

1. Globalisation means the individualistic-collectivist distinction may no longer apply. 14 out of 15 studies that compared US and Japan found no evidence of individualism and collectivism. Culture bias may be less of an issue 2. Cultural psychology is an emerging field which strives to avoid ethnocentric assumptions. Takes an elicit approach and uses cross cultural research.

Question 43

Eval: Consequences because of culture bias

Answer 43

1. First IQ tests led to eugenic social policies in the US. Questions on the test were ethnocentric (name US presidents). Ethnic minorities performed poorly and were deemed ‘feeble minded’ so were denied professional opportunities. Used to justify discrimination 2.

Question 44

What is universality?

Answer 44

An underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing

Question 45

What is bias?

Answer 45

The tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way to others

Question 46

What is social sensitivity?

Answer 46

Describes studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants, or the group of people represented by research

Question 47

What is the interactionist approach?

Answer 47

A way to explain the development of behaviour in terms of a range of factors, including biological and psychological ones. Most importantly, such factors do not simply add together, but combine in a way that cannot be predicted by each one separately