Issues and debates Flashcards
Alpha bias
Alpha bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour as theorists overestimate differences
Beta bias
Beta bias is when there is a misrepresentation of behaviour as theorists underestimate differences, often resulting in a misrepresentation of the findings of a study
Androcentrism
Androcentrism is when psychological theories assume a male point of view
An example of alpha bias linked to cognitive styles
An example of alpha bias in research is the study by Baron-Cohen et al. (2005), which suggested that men and women have different cognitive styles, with men being sympathisers and women being empathisers.
4 ways
How can psychologists minimise gender bias?
Psychology can move forward as we become more aware of gender bias. By being more aware, this issue can be minimised in a number of ways.
One way to minimise gender bias in psychological research is by including both genders in their research. This can ensure that both genders are considered within the context of the research.
However, if the sample is only represented by one gender, it is important for the researcher to make it clear in reporting that any conclusions drawn relate only to the gender of the sample.
Another way of reducing gender bias is by trying to minimise biases within the social and historical contexts that the researchers live in which will have a direct result in how they interpret and report their own data.
What is gender bias
Gender bias refers to the tendency to favour one gender over another in psychological research, theory, or practice. Failure to consider adequately differences between men and women can lead to gender bias, based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
Ethnocentrism
A type of cultural bias that involves judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture
Cultural relativism
The idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
Cultural bias
Overlooking cultural differences by looking at human behaviour from the perspective of your own culture.
Etic approach
Studying behaviour across many cultures in order to find universal human behaviours
Culture bound syndromes
Groups of syndromes classified as treatable illnesses in certain cultures that are not recognised as such in the West
Emic approach
Studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to that culture
Individualist culture
Refers to Western countries (like the US) that are thought to be more independent
Collectivist cultures
Refers to cultures such as India and China that are said to be more conformist and group-orientated.
Imposed etic
A test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain behaviour in another culture
Research tradition
he familiarity a certain culture has with taking part in psychological investigations.
Universiality
Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all
Has psychological research, in general, leant towards a more etic or emic approach? Give an example of a study that shows this approach.
Psychology has been guilty of an etic approach, with many Western researchers interpreting data from other cultures through their own culturally specific system.
E.g, Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Studied behaviour in America and argued that it applied to the rest of the world, regardless of culture.
Smith and Bond (1998) on ethnocentrism
In a study by Smith and Bond in 1998, it was revealed that a significant portion (66%) of psychological research was conducted in the United States, illustrating the prevalence of this bias.
culture bias
What did Reynolds at el (2012) find in relation to ethnic groups and diagnosis
For example, Reynolds et al 2012 found that some ethnic groups are unfairly diagnosed and disproportionately placed in special classes which resulted in applicants unfairly denied college admission or employment due to purported bias in standardised tests. Suggests that one standardised test cannot be used for people of all cultures and backgrounds because the test is unfairly biased against them.
What famous study uses culture bias and how ?
Asch’s (1951) conformity study it falsely suggests that all individuals within and outside of America conform in the same way; this was countered by Bond and Smith (1996), who argue that collectivist cultures like China may be more likely to conform due to cultural values emphasizing group harmony and conformity.
*Who *developed a framework to assess cultural dimensions, such as individualism-collectivism and power distance to reduce culture bias?
Geert Hofstede
Outline free will [5 marks]
- Free will is the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave.
- The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined.
- For example, people can make a free choice as to whether to commit a crime or not.
- Therefore, a person is responsible for their own actions, and it is impossible to predict human behaviour with any precision.
- Humanist psychologists argue against the determinism view, claiming that humans have self-determination and free will and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause.
possible points
Which approach employs free will?
Humanist psychologists argue against the determinism view, claiming that humans have self-determination and free will and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause.
Why might the deterministic view be considered scientific?
A strength of deterministic theories is that they align with the aims of psychology, which involve predicting and controlling behaviour.
What is meant by determinism
Determinism is the idea that an individual’s behaviour and thoughts are pre-determined and controlled by internal and external forces.
What are the 3 forms of determinism?
biological, environmental, psychic
Biological determinism
Claims we are entirely determined by genetic factors; for example, research has shown that first degree relatives of schizophrenics have a more likely chance of developing the disorder too.
Psychic determinism
Claims that behaviour is a result of childhood experiences and innate drives; for example, Freud’s model of psychological development suggests that gender differences are acquired during the phallic stage of development.
Environmental determinism
Claims that behaviour is caused by experience learned through classical and operant conditioning; for example, phobias learnt through classical conditioning
Hard vs soft determinism
- Hard determinism is the view that all behaviour is caused by forces outside a person’s control
- Soft determinism is the view that behaviour is still caused but not by external events but by their own conscious desires
What did sam harris say abt free will
Sam Harris critics free will as an illusion, possibly suggesting that our actions are products of our brain states which are themselves influenced by prior causes beyond our control
What is the scientific principle of parsimony?
find the simplest explanation and find one root cause
Historical debate on nature and nurture
Historically, the nature nurture debate revolved around whether behaviour was rooted in nativism or empiricism, with tension between the views
Current nature nurture debate
The current debate concerns the relative importance of each thorough the interactionist approach.
What is nativism (nature)
Nativism (nature) is placing an emphasis on being born with certain innate traits
What is empiricism (nurture)
Empiricism, (nurture) on the other hand, states that all knowledge is derived from experience and that you are born as a blank slate (tabula rasa)
nature nurture
Where do the approaches lie on the N/N spectrum?
The biological approach sits on the nature side of the spectrum while the cognitive, humanistic and psychodynamic approaches sits in the middle. SLT and behaviourism lean towards the nurture side of the debate.
Interactionist approach
The interactionist approach is the view that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour. The interactionist approach is best illustrated by the genetic disorder PKU (phenylketonuria)
N/N
March et al. (2007) on using interactionism to treat depression
March et al. (2007) found that with a combination of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and antidepressants in treating depression, 86% of their participants significantly improved compared to 81% from just CBT or just antidepressants.
Can we easily disentangle nature from nuture, why/ why not?
It’s hard bcs when using twin studies to determine the relative contribution of nature v nurture, it is hard to determine whether a higher concordance rate in MZ than DZ twins is due to similar environmental experiences or genetics.
Diathesis stress model
Diathesis means biological vulnerability, where a biological factor can be triggered by an environmental factor (the stressor).
Example of diathesis stress
An example is schizophrenia, with its environmental trigger being smoking cannabis.
What are epigenetics
Epigenetic mechanisms control the expression of genes.
3 steps
Process of methylation of histone proteins
- Groups of atoms can attach to the ammo acids in the histone proteins and change their characteristics.
- For example, when methyl groups (-CH3) attach to histone proteins, the regions of DNA wound around them draws in more tightly, which prevents these regions from being translated into messenger RNA.
- Thus, methylation of histone proteins prevents the expression of particular genes.
What can trigger epigenetic changes? Can they be passed on?
Many epigenetic changes are initiated by environmental events such as exposure to toxins, and some epigenetic changes can be transmitted to offspring.
N/N
What did Weaver et al (2004) find?
Weaver et al. (2004) found that rats that received better maternal care had less stress-related genes activated, while those who received worse maternal care had more stress-related genes activated. This suggests that parenting and nurturing can impact genetic expression and behaviour in animals.
Histone protein
Protein structure that DNA coils around to be condensed
Translation
Translation = amino acids assemble after being directed by the mRNA to form a chain
Gene expression
Expression of gene = encoded information carrying out its potential function
What is the reductionism/ holism debate about? (R/H)
Question the philosophy of science: can complex behaviours be reduced to their simpler components?
What is reductionism
Reductionism is the theory that complex phenomena can be explained by simpler or smaller parts, and therefore can be reduced to their simplest form
Must use AO1 term for reductionism
PARSIMONYNYYYY
3 types of reductionism
Biological, environmental, experimental
biological reductionism w example
Biological reductionism reduces all behaviours, no matter how complex, to the actions of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, etc. For example, biological psychologists argue that OCD is caused by the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine.
Environmental reductionism w example
Environmental reductionism insists that behaviour is nothing more than a series of stimulus-response links. A good example of environmental reductionism comes from the behavioural explanation of phobias, which argue that phobias are initiated through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.
Experimental reductionism w example
Experimental reductionism refers to the practice of breaking down complex psychological phenomena into simpler components and studying them in controlled laboratory experiments. This approach attempts to identify the underlying mechanisms of complex behaviours and cognitive processes. An example of experimental reductionism in psychology is the use of animal studies to understand basic mechanisms of learning and memory. For instance, classical conditioning experiments conducted by Ivan Pavlov on dogs
What scientific methodology does experimental reductionism favour?
Isolated variables (experimental reductionism), such as genetics and blood flow in brain regions.
What is holism about
It is the theory that parts of a whole are an intimate interconnection, such that they cannot be understood without reference to the whole
Where does ‘holism’ term originate from
Greek hollo, human behaviour integrated experience no separate parts
What does Gestalt say regarding holism?
- Gestalt ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’
- Gestalt psychology applies holistic approach as a whole
What do humanistic psychologists argue in terms of holism
Humanistic psych argue humans react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than stimulus-response links
What type of data does holism collect?
Qualitative as well as people interactions
What is holistic abt Zimbardo’s prison experiment in 1973
It used interviews and controlled observation, require us to analyse the whole system on a holistic level, rather than on an individual basis.
5 pros of parsimony
- Scientific and analytic approach
- Ease of testing
- Scientific support and credibility
- Prediction and control
- Implications for treatment
What is idiographic
The idiographic approach in psychology is a method of studying the individual as a unique case and respecting their subjective experiences
Why is the idiographic approach good in generating new areas of research?
Data is detailed and extensive
Why won’t samples in idioraphic approach be representitive
Sample will not be representative because of the uniqueness of the traits the individual possesses
What methods does idiographic use?
As case studies, which allow for an in-depth examination of a person’s unique experiences, behaviours, and life circumstances.
How was Maslow being idiographic
The idiographic approach was used by Maslow to investigate self-actualization, where he focused on the experiences of two individuals who achieved self-actualization.
Why may idiographic be non-scientific?
The methodology stems from unstructured information, allowing bias to occur. As a result, information gathered can be largely affected by researcher bias as it is heavily open to interpretation. This would largely threaten the internal validity of the research.
What is nomothetic
The nomothetic approach in psychology aims to establish laws and generalisations that apply to many people.
Methods employed by nomothetic approach
It involves testing a large sample using experimental or correlational methods. It relies on quantitative analysis, employing statistical tests to derive general laws applicable to all individuals.
Example of being nomothetic in terms of depression
For instance, in the context of drug therapy for depression, this approach uses a general principle: reducing serotonin levels is the cause of depression, and this principle should apply universally, disregarding individual differences.
How does nomothetic approach assume uniformity in infancy?
Even in infancy, this approach assumes uniformity, positing that all babies cry for the same reasons, leading to the creation of general laws without accounting for individual distinctions.
How does nomothetic approach have positive practical applications?
The establishment of nomothetic laws has led to the development of pharmaceutical drugs like SSRIs, which are employed in the treatment of conditions such as OCD
Why may nomothetic approach provide only a surface level understanding?
Such studies might engender an excessive reliance on numerical data, potentially leading to a narrow focus on statistics. This fixation could potentially lead psychologists to overlook the underlying reasons behind behaviours, as exemplified by the inability of studies like Milgram’s to explain the motivations for obedience. Consequently, it can be argued that the nomothetic approach might fall short in providing a truly comprehensive explanation of behaviour.
Who defines social sensitivity?
Sieber and Stanley (1988)
Define social sensitivity
Social sensitivity Sieber and Stanley (1988) define socially sensitive research as, ‘studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research’.
Ethical issues
Arise when there is a conflict between gaining valuable research and preserving the rights and dignity of participants.
Ethical guidelines, name 2 types as well
Ethical guidelines were established to help protect those involved in research.
The British Psychological Society (BPS)
American Psychological Association (APA)
(Aronson 1999) on controvertial research
Psychologists have a social responsibility to carry out research on controversial topics (Aronson 1999)
Sieber and Stanley (1988) argued 4 concerns that should be taken into account. These are:
- Research question - Asking questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.
- Methodology used - The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant’s and their right to confidentiality and anonymity.
- Institutional context - The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?
- Interpretation and application of findings - The researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real-world. Could their data or results be used to inform policy?
6 BPS ethical guidelines
Consent
Deception
Debriefing
Withdrawal
Anonymity and confidentiality
Participant protection
3 ways
Stanley Milgram’s (1963) shock experiment is a well-known example of a study with significant ethical implications for its participants. How?
No Informed Consent
Distress
No right to withdrawal
3 ways
Phillip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) is another well-known example of a study with significant ethical implications for its participants. How?
Distress
Lack of objectivity
No right to withdrawal
