Issues and debates

Question 1

What is universality ?

Answer 1

Characteristics that can be applied to all humans.

Question 2

Define gender bias.

Answer 2

Views/studies that do not accurately represent behaviours in men or women.

Question 3

Define androcentrism.

Answer 3

Male dominated research where women’s behaviour judged by male standards.

Question 4

What is alpha bias ?

Answer 4

Exaggerates diff between men and women.

Question 5

What is beta bias ?

Answer 5

Ignores or minimises diff between men and women.

Question 6

What is an example of alpha bias ?

Answer 6

Freud’s Psychodynamic approach - argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, so develop weaker superegos.

Evolutionary approach

Question 7

What is an example of beta bias ?

Answer 7

Fight-or-flight response - carried out with male animals because they have less variation in hormones than females. It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or-flight response would be the same for both. However, later stress research by Taylor et al. (2000) has challenged this view by providing evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response.

Asch’s (1955) conformity studies involved all male participants, as did many of the other conformity studies (e.g., Perrin & Spencer, 1980) and therefore it was assumed that females would respond in the same way.

Question 8

Evaluate gender bias.

Answer 8

Limitation - Gender differences explained as fixed but are not. Maccoby and Jacklin suggested differences hardwired at birth. But Joel et al used brain scanning techniques and found no diff.

Limitation - promotes sexism, lecturers most likely male (Murphy et al) so most research conducted by men and so their expectations of women may cause bias.

Limitation - research challenging gender biases may not be published. Funded less so fewer scholars apply to own work.

Question 9

Give an example of ethnocentrism.

Answer 9

Strange situation for attachment - western culture being used on other cultures to assess attachment type led to bias.

Question 10

What is etic ?

Answer 10

Looking at behaviour from outside given culture and attempt to describe those behaviours as universal.

Question 11

What is emic ?

Answer 11

Looking at behaviour from inside the culture to identify behaviour specific to that culture.

Question 12

Evaluate cultural bias

Answer 12

Limitation - most influential studies culturally biased, eg Asch and Milgram. Asch individualistic cultures.

Strength - cultural psych now, Cohen said it studies how people shaped and shape culture. Cross cultural research. Now more mindful.

Limitation - stereotypes created, prejudice due to ineffective research. Gould said IQ tests US ethnocentric and used for racism.

Question 13

What did Berry suggest about etic ?

Answer 13

Psych often guilty of imposed etic.

Question 14

What is free will ?

Answer 14

Idea humans are self determining and free to choose own thoughts and actions.

Question 15

What is the difference between hard and soft determinism?

Answer 15

Hard determinism is the view that all behaviour is caused by something.

Soft determinism is the view that behaviour may be predictable, but there is also room for personal choice.

Question 16

what are the three types of determinism?

Answer 16

biological, environmental and psychic.

Question 17

Give examples for the three types of determinism

Answer 17

biological - autonomic nervous system on the stress response

environmental - skinner and conditioning

psychic - Freud and unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood

Question 18

Evaluate freewill and determinism

Answer 18

strength free will - practical value, we use freewill in every day lives, even if not true Roberts et al said, if we think we do, it improves our mental health. internal loc more likely optimistic.

limitation fw - Brian scan evidence does not support. libet et al flick wrist experiment unconscious brain knew before conscious. Basic experiences may be determined by brain before we are aware.

limitation det - legal system, responsible for actions.

Question 19

What is the nature nature debate?

Answer 19

The extent to which aspects of behaviour are the product of inherited or acquired characteristics

Question 20

what is the diathesis stress model in nature/nurture ?

Answer 20

behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability, which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger eg OCD.

Question 21

What are epigenetic?

Answer 21

The change in genetic activity without changing genes themselves. aspects of our lifestyle or events leave marks on our DNA. Can affect generations so seen as third part of debate

Question 22

how can we measure nature or nurture ?

Answer 22

concordance rates

Question 23

Evaluate the nature nurture debate

Answer 23

strength - use of adoption studies that separate both aspects. meta analysis Rhee and Waldman found genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression

strength - support for epigenetics, ww2 Susser and Lin - pregnant women in famine had low weight babies and 2x more likely sz.

strength - real world application, Nestadt et al .76 heritable OCD. Can try prevent eg learn to manage stress.

Question 24

what is holism?

Answer 24

theory that proposes that it makes sense to study and indivisible system rather than its constituent parts

Question 25

what is reductionism?

Answer 25

The belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying smaller, constituent parts

Question 26

what are the levels of explanation in psychology?

Answer 26

highest - socio cultural
psychological
physical
environmental
physiological
lowest - neurochemical

Question 27

what is biological reductionism?

Answer 27

Explaining behaviour at the lowest biological level in terms of genes, hormones etc

Question 28

what is environmental reductionism?

Answer 28

explaining behaviour in terms of stimulus response links have been learnt through experience

Question 29

evaluate holism and reductionism

Answer 29

limitation holism - lack practical value, practical dilemmas. hard to know most influential factors and what to prioritise in therapy

strength red - form basis of scientific approach, operationalisation for objective and reliable research. eg strange situation categories.

limitation red - sometimes need group explanations eg in conformity like stanford prison can’t just look at individuals

Question 30

What is an idiographic approach?

Answer 30

An approach that focuses on the individual case, as a mean of understanding behaviour, instead of trying to formulate general laws

Question 31

what is a nomothetic approach?

Answer 31

aim to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws

Question 32

what type of data is most idiographic research?

Answer 32

qualitative

Question 33

give an example of idiographic research in psychology

Answer 33

humanistic and psychodynamic approaches, eg carl rogers unconditional positive regard

Question 34

what is an example of the nomothetic approach in psychology?

Answer 34

behaviourist and biological approaches, eg Skinner general laws of learning from animal studies. Sperry split brain research

Question 35

evaluate the idiographic and nomothetic approaches

Answer 35

strength i - contributes to nomothetic approach, eg single HM case generated hypothesis for further study

strength both - fit in with science aims nomothetic standardisation and statistical testing. Idiographic triangulation.

limitation n - loss of understanding of individual. lose whole person, eg knowing 1% risk of sz tells little about what it’s like. understanding subjective experience of sz can help find treatment etc

Question 36

What are ethical implications?

Answer 36

Consequences of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants, all the way in which certain groups are regarded subsequently

Question 37

What is social sensitivity?

Answer 37

Sieber and Stanley define as studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or in class of individuals represented by the research

Question 38

give an example of social sensitivity

Answer 38

depression studies - if findings suggest never recover can be risk of employee

Question 39

what are implications for the research process?

Answer 39

Question - Sieber and Stanley, way phrased and investigated can influence way findings interpreted. eg Kitxinger and Coyle, heterosexual bias in research

Dealing w pps eg informed consent, confidentiality etc.

Way findings used

Question 40

Evaluate ethical implications

Answer 40

strength - socially sensitive research has benefits for group studied. eg homosexuality taken out DSM - 1 as sociopathic personality disorder. Credited to Kinsey report based on anonymous interviews with gay men.

strength - certain groups rely on socially sensitive research. eg government looks to research when developing social policies. ONS etc objective data for sensitive topics.

limitation - poor research design can create incorrect findings. eg Burte research of 11+ exam but still used today. research needs to be planned with greatest care