Issues and Debates

Question 1

Alpha Bias

Answer 1

Research exaggerates the difference between men and women.

Question 2

Beta Bias

Answer 2

Minimises or ignores the difference between men and women.

Question 3

Androcentrism

Answer 3

being centred on, or dominated by males and can be conscious or unconscious

Question 4

universality

Answer 4

assuming that personal qualities and characteristics, including attitudes and values, are common in the general social group or culture

Question 5

Gender Bias

Answer 5

research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and/or behaviour of men or women individually or specifically

Question 6

Alpha bias Example

Answer 6

Freuds psychosexual theory - girls identification with mother makes them weaker

Question 7

Beta bias Example

Answer 7

Fight or flight - Taylor et al suggested that women could have more of a tend and befriend response due to more oxytocin.

Question 8

Gender Bias in research -

Answer 8

Formanowicz et al analysed over 1000 articles and found research by women are likely to be put in less prestigous journals and have less funding.

Question 9

Sexism within research -

Answer 9

Gender bias promotes sexism, psychology intake is majority women but lectures are still most likely male (Murphy et al 2014)

Question 10

Biological vs Social explanations -

Answer 10

gender differences often presented as fixed, Maccoby and Jacklin(1974) suggested men have better spatial ability and women have better verbal ability. However Joel et al (2015) disproved this.

Question 11

Counterpoint to Biological vs Social explanations

Answer 11

Ingalhakliar et al (2014) suggested women may be better at multi-tasking than men due to having better connections between their left and right hemisphere. So research should still be conducted.

Question 12

Culture Bias

Answer 12

the interpretation of situations, actions, or data based on the standards of one’s own culture

Question 13

ethnocentrism

Answer 13

the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture

Question 14

Cultural Relativism

Answer 14

the claim that ethical practices differ among cultures, and what is considered right in one culture may be considered wrong in another.

Question 15

Henrichs et al (2010)

Answer 15

Reviewed hundreds of studies within journals and found 96% of all research is industrialised nations and 68% of that is the US

Question 16

WEIRD

Answer 16

people from Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic (WEIRD) societies

Question 17

Example of Ethnocentrism

Answer 17

Ainsworth strange situation - only applies to the norms of western societies.

Question 18

Classical Studies are bias

Answer 18

some of the most influential studies are culturally bias Asch and Milgrams original studies were exclusively US based and WEIRD. Smith and Bond 1993 found in collectivist cultures found higher levels of conformity.

Question 19

Cultural Psychology

Answer 19

Cohen (2017) the study of how people are shaped by their cultural experiences, suggesting that people are trying to be more mindful.

Question 20

Ethnic stereotyping

Answer 20

Led to prejudice against groups of people, Gould (1981) showed how the first intelligent tests led to eugenic social policies. These tests included things like naming presidents that people from other countries may not know.

Question 21

Classical Studies are bias Counterpoint

Answer 21

It can be argued that in the modern day with access to media this individualist vs collectivist arguement does not exist. Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 that compared US to Japan there was no evidence of individulist or collectivist cultures.

Question 22

Etic

Answer 22

research that studies cross-cultural differences

Question 23

Emic

Answer 23

assuming that findings from a study in one culture can be applied universally

Question 24

Free-will

Answer 24

the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave

Question 25

Determinism

Answer 25

the view that free will is an illusion, and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control

Question 26

Hard Determinism

Answer 26

the view that forces outside of our control (e.g. biology or past experience) shape our behaviour

Question 27

Soft Determinism

Answer 27

behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make-up, but only to a certain extent

Question 28

Biological Determinism

Answer 28

the idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes.

Question 29

Enviromental Determinism

Answer 29

the view that behaviour is determined or caused by forces outside the individual.

Question 30

Psychic Determinism

Answer 30

that all aspects of a person’s psychological makeup arise from specific causes or forces, as previous experiences or instinctual drives, which may be conscious or unconscious

Question 31

The Law, Determinism -

Answer 31

hard determinism says the individuals choice is not the reason for behaviour. However this is not in line with the law, suggesting determinism principles do not work.

Question 32

Practical Value of Free will +

Answer 32

belief in Free-will improves mental-health, Roberts et al (2000) looked at adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism and found that they were far more likely to be depressed.

Question 33

Research evidence of free will

Answer 33

Brain scans don’t support free will, Libet et al (1983) made people choose a random time to flick their wrist and measured brain activity when they consieously felt to move.

Question 34

Research evidence of free will Counterpoint

Answer 34

Libet’s findings are not surprising, the decision took time to reach consciousness and is simply a read out of our unconscious decision-making.

Question 35

Determinism - the Law

Answer 35

Hard determinism is not consistent with the way in which our legal system operates. as the law argues you are responsible for your action.

Question 36

The Interactionist approach

Answer 36

Finding a balance between both methods weighing up each and taking what is needed from both.

Question 37

Diathesis-stress model

Answer 37

Suggested behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental ‘trigger’. A person who inherits a genetic vulnerability for OCD may not develop the disorder. But, combined with a psychological trigger this may result in the disorder appearing.

Question 38

Epigenetics

Answer 38

Refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing the genes themselves. It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment. Aspects of our lifestyle or events we encounter leave marks on our DNA which switch genes on or off.

Question 39

Nature

Answer 39

Nature refers to inherited influences, or heredity. Descartes (1596-1650) argued that all human characteristics and even some aspects of knowledge are innate. Psychological characteristics like intelligence or personality are determined by biological factors.

Question 40

Nurture

Answer 40

Refers to the influence of experience and the environment. John Locke (1632-1704) argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth and is shaped by their environment, later becoming part of the behaviourist approach.

Question 41

Measuring nature and nurture

Answer 41

Such as concordance provides an estimate about the extent to which a trait is inherited called heritability. The general figure for variability in IQ is about .5 across multiple studies. This means that about half of a person’s intelligence is determined by genetic factors and the other half must be environmental.

Question 42

nature and nurture: Adoption studies

Answer 42

If adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents this suggests the environment is the bigger influence whereas if children are more similar to their biological parents then genetic factors are presumed to dominate.

Question 43

nature and nurture: Adoption study results +

Answer 43

A meta-analysis of adoption studies by Rhee and Waldman (2002) found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of variance in aggressions.

Question 43

nature and nurture: Adoption studies counterpoint

Answer 43

Research suggests that nature and nurture are not two entities that can not simply be pulled apart. Plomin(1994) people create their own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for the child.

Question 44

nature and nurture: Real world application

Answer 44

Research suggests that OCD is a highly heritable mental disorder. Nestadt et al. (2010) put the heritability rate at .76. Such understanding can inform genetic counselling because it is important to understand that high heritability does not mean it is inevitable that the individual will go on to develop the disorder. So high genetic risk people of OCD because of their family background can receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent this.

Question 45

Holism

Answer 45

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts.

Question 46

Reductionism

Answer 46

The belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying the small constituent parts

Question 47

Levels of explanation

Answer 47

The idea that there are several ways that can be used to explain behaviour. The lowest level considers physiological/biological explanations the middle level considers social and cultural explanations

Question 48

Biological reductionism

Answer 48

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain behaviour at the lowest biological level

Question 49

Environmental reductionism

Answer 49

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience.

Question 50

Levels of explanations in psychology

Answer 50

There are different ways to explain behaviour, some more reductionist than others. There are 6 levels.
Socio-cultural level
Psychological level
Physical level
environmental/behavioural level
Physiological level
Neurochemical level.

Question 51

Holism vs Reductionism: Lack of practical value holism

Answer 51

Holistic accounts of human behaviour tend to become hard to use as they become more complex, which makes it difficult as if we accept from a humanistic perspective that there are many different factors that contribute to depression, so it becomes to judge what is most influential, making hard to judge when it comes to things like therapy.

Question 52

Holism vs Reductionism: Scientific approach reductionist

Answer 52

In order to conduct a well-controlled research we need to operationalise the variables to be studied to break down behaviours into constituent parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record observations in a way that is objective and reliable.

Question 53

Holism vs Reductionism: Scientific approach counterpoint

Answer 53

Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena, leading to reduced validity. Explanations that operate at the level of the gene or neurotransmitter do not include an analysis of social context within which occurs and this is where the behaviour may derive its meaning.

Question 54

Holism vs Reductionism Higher level - reductionist

Answer 54

Some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level. Often there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood in terms of the individual group members, there is no conformity gene so social processes like conformity can only be explained at the level at which they occur

Question 55

Gestalt

Answer 55

Argued that the whole was more important than the sum of parts.

Question 56

Parsimony

Answer 56

Extreme unwillingness to spend money or resources.

Question 57

Scientific racism

Answer 57

There is a risk that taking a reductionist approach can fuel scientific racism. Reducing behaviour down to the influence of genetics has been used in eugenics therefore this approach contributes in to ethnocentrism psychology.

Question 58

Idiographic

Answer 58

An approach to the research that focuses more on individual case as a meaning of understanding behaviour rather than aiming to formulate generalised behaviour.

Question 59

Nomothetic approach

Answer 59

The nomothetic approach and study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws

Question 60

Qualitative research

Answer 60

Most idiographic research is qualitative, conclusions may help other people going through similar experiences or more widely may help mental health professionals determine best practice.

Question 61

Idiographic-nomothetic debate

Answer 61

The idiographic approach suggests that psychology should be the study of individuals with his bio training lots of details and information about individuals. We can understand human behaviour a lot better however the nomothetic approach suggests that psychology should be studied in large groups to establish norms.

Question 62

Quantitative research

Answer 62

The nomothetic approach tends to use the more structured details and assist in numerical data and its analysis does this for statistical significance.

Question 63

Idiographic-nomothetic: Complete account

Answer 63

The idiographic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods of investigation and this provides a global description of one individual. This may complement the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws. Cases like HM may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding.

Question 64

Idiographic-nomothetic: Complete account Counterpoint

Answer 64

Idiographic research is restricted and Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as this means there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour. In addition, methods associated with the idiographic approach, such as case studies, tend to be the least scientific in that conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher.

Question 65

Idiographic-nomothetic: Scientific Credibility

Answer 65

both approaches is that they fit with the aims of science.
The processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences. However, researchers using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods.

Question 66

Idiographic-nomothetic: Losing the person

Answer 66

The fact that the nomothetic approach is preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of ‘losing the whole person’ within psychology. Schizophrenia is rare so not effective to generalise.

Question 67

Ethical implications

Answer 67

The consequence of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded.

Question 68

Social sensitivity

Answer 68

Sieber and Stanley (1988) define socially sensitive research as, “studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research”.

Question 69

Ethical implications example

Answer 69

For example research on long-term memory in a student population is unlikely to have consequences for individual participants.

Question 70

Social sensitivity example

Answer 70

A study on depression may have consequences in terms of individual participants. For example an individual participant may reveal personal information that is later accessed by a prospective employer and may find that depression never fully recovers and could be a risk to employ.

Question 71

Research question

Answer 71

Sieber and Stanley (1988) warn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted. Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) note how research into relationships has been guilty of a form of “hetrosexual bias” where homosexual relationships were compared to hetrosexual relationships.

Question 72

Dealing with participants

Answer 72

Issues such as informed consent , confidentiality and psychological harm may be especially important in socially sensitive research. For example in a study on domestic abuse participants may worry that an ex-partner will find out about the study and also it is likely to experience great amounts of stress.

Question 73

Ethical implications of research: Benefits for groups

Answer 73

One example of this is homosexuality in 1952 the DSM-1 listed this as a sociopathic personality disorder but finally removed it in 1973. This change has been credited to the kinsey.

Question 74

Ethical implications of research: Benefits for groups Counterpoint

Answer 74

some studies there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied, which in some cases could have been anticipated. For example, research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found that there is a ‘criminal gene’. If this is true does it mean that someone could be convicted on the basis that they have such a gene or should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible for any wrongdoing?

Question 75

Ethical implications of research: Real World Application

Answer 75

certain groups (e.g. policymakers) rely on research related to socially sensitive issues. The government looks to research when developing important social policies, for example decisions related to child care, education, mental health provision, crime and so on.

Question 76

Ethical implications of research: Poor Research Design

Answer 76

One limitation is that poor research design may lead to erroneous findings. This was certainly the case in relation to Burt’s research because, even after the fraud was exposed, the 11+ continued to be used. Indeed, the 11+ is still used as a selection tool in parts of the UK today (e.g. Kent, Belfast).