issue & debates

Question 1

What is the structure we follow within issues and debates

Answer 1

Name
Explain
Link

Question 2

Define the term universality (n)

Answer 2

(E) This is the idea that conclusions drawn from research can be applied to everybody, regardless of time period, gender or culture.
(L) For example, believing that some behaviours are the same for all genders
E.g the findings from milgrams research (conducted on males) can be applied for all genders

Question 3

Define the term gender bias

Answer 3

When psychological research or theory offers a view that does not represent the experience and behaviour of either men or women.

Feminist psychologists argue that psychology has been built on the biased research of male psychologists and has been shaped to uphold male superiority

There are three major types of gender bias all of which limit universality

Question 4

What are the three types of gender bias

Answer 4

Androcentrism
Alpha bias
Beta bias

Question 5

Define the term androcentrism (N)

Answer 5

(E) Research that is based only on males, then it is used as the standard or
expected norm for both sexes.

If our understanding of what is ‘normal’ behavior comes from male only samples, then any behavior that deviates form this is seen as abnormal or inferior. This leads to female behavior being misunderstood or pathologised (taken as a sign of psychological instability).

(L) For example, research in to conformity by Asch was conducted on a sample of males and then generalised to both sexes, therefore if females conformed more than 37% of the time then they may have been seen as abnormal.

Question 6

Define the term Beta bias (N)

Answer 6

(E) Research/theories misrepresent behaviour as they ignore or minimises the differences between males and females. Therefore important aspects of female experience are ignored, so limits any conclusions drawn.

This often occurs when female participants are not included in a sample and it is assumed the findings can apply equally to both sexes.

(L) For example, the fight-or-flight response has been described as universal (applying equally to men and women) but much of the early research was conducted on male animals.

Question 7

Define the term alpha bias (N)

Answer 7

(E) Research/theories misrepresent behaviours as it exaggerates differences between males and females, serving to reinforce gender stereotypes and usually devalue women as women are often not seen as ‘the norm’

(L) For example, research on relationships (Buss) has shown that males seek a partner that is young and attractive whereas females seek a man with resources, reinforcing these gender stereotypes.

Question 8

What are the two types of culture bias

Answer 8

Ethnocentrism
Cultural relativism

Question 9

Define the term culture bias

Answer 9

When psychological studies or theories ignore cultural difference assuming that their findings can be generalised globally. However, much research has been conducted in Western universities meaning that the results are really only applicable to that culture. Some bias researchers have assumed that their culture is the norm.

Question 10

Define the term ethnocentrism (N)

Answer 10

(E) The assumption that one ethnic group/culture is superior to another, or to all ethnic groups, and emphasizing the importance of one’s own culture. This leads to a belief that the behaviours of their ethnic group/culture is the norm and others are seen as abnormal or strange which can lead to prejudice and discrimination.

(L) For example, several researchers have conducted studies on IQ and have identified that those from African-Carribean backgrounds score an average of 15 points lower on IQ tests than Caucasians.

Question 11

Define the term cultural relativism (N)

Answer 11

(E) This is the appreciation that behaviour’s vary between cultures and that there is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ behaviour. It is important to consider individuals behaviour within their culture before making a judgement.This is because, social norms are culturally relative as what is considered acceptable in one culture may be unacceptable elsewhere.

(L) For example, when defining abnormality it should be appreciated that what is seen as abnormal in one culture, may not be deemed abnormal in another.

Question 12

Describe free will vs determinism (4)

Answer 12

The concept of free will suggests that as human beings we are free to choose our behaviours, thoughts and actions. (1)

Although there may be external (environmental) or internal (biological) forces that can impact this choice, free will believes we have the ability to reject these pressures and self-determine our own destiny. (2)

Where as determinism argues that all behaviour is controlled and caused by external and/or internal factors (1)
and individuals have no free will over their behaviour. (2)

Question 13

What are the two determinisms

Answer 13

Hard determinism
Soft determinism

Question 14

What are the 3 types of determinism

Answer 14

Biological determinism
Environmental determinism
Psychic determinism

Question 15

Define the term hard determinism (N)

Answer 15

(E) All human behaviour is a result of external and/or internal causes that we cannot control as individuals. Free will does not play a role, so individuals do not have any choice in the behaviour they display.

(L) It is believed that an individual’s vulnerability to developing OCD is caused by internal factors such as inheritance of a mutated SERT gene which causes anxiety

Question 16

Define soft determinism (N)

Answer 16

(E) All human behaviour is a result of external and/or internal causes, yet as individuals we also have the ability to make conscious decisions about what we want in life, which can also impact human behaviour.

(L) In the social learning theory we learn behaviour through observing a model and imitating them, however our thought processes must play a role as to whether or not we identify someone as a role model or not.

Question 17

Define biological determinism (N)

Answer 17

(E) Human behaviour is controlled by biological factors such as genetics, evolution & hormones.
(L) Addiction to a substance/behaviour can be encouraged through lower levels of D2 receptors.

Question 18

Define environmental determinism (N)

Answer 18

(E) Behaviour is controlled by external factors within individual’s surroundings such as parents, society, schools, peers, ubringing e.g. reinforcements and punishments.
(L) An infant learns to attach to their caregiver via stimulus, response association with the food provided.

Question 19

Define psychic determinism (N)

Answer 19

(E) Human behaviour is controlled by unconscious conflict within the mind, which have been repressed from early childhood.
(L) Anxious personality could be cause by an overactive super ego (morality principle)

Question 20

The scientific emphasis on casual relationships markpoint

Answer 20

1. Deterministic research (method) - establish cause and effect
2. Lab experiment - help determinism
3. Manipulate Iv to have an effect in the dv
4. Control over all other variables E.g extraneous variables
5. Establish cause and effect, create between iv and dv -> cause and effect established -> create general laws of behaviour

Question 21

Define the nature-nurture debate in psychology (2)

Answer 21

The nature-nurture debate discusses whether human behaviour is due to nature (gene) or nurture (environment, experiences).
This question is difficult to answer, psychologists are now more concerned with the relative contribution of each.

Question 22

What psychologists agree with nature

Answer 22

Nativists

Question 23

What psychologists agree with nurture

Answer 23

Empiricists

Question 24

Describe nature as part of the nature-nurture

Answer 24

Nativists psychologists believe in the importance of heredity (nature) - the idea that human characteristics (mental & physical) are innate and passed on from one generation to the next via genes

Question 25

What is an example of nature

Answer 25

Bowlby’s monotropic theory states that babies come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments
through behaviours such as social releasers because this will help them to survive

Question 26

Describe nurture as a part of the nature-nurture

Answer 26

Empiricists (such as Skinner) argue that the mind is ‘blank slate’ at birth
and our behaviour is shaped by our environment, learning and experience

Question 27

What is an example of nurture

Answer 27

Behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning

Where food the UCS is associated with the mother (NS) and through repeated pairings the mother becomes a CS which produces a CR in the child of pleasure

Therefore, attachment is a learnt process

Question 28

Using an example, why is it difficult to answer the nature-nurture debate

Answer 28

Difficult to answer the nature-nurture debate as environmental influences in a child begin as soon as they are born.

E.g - it is often very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates in MZ twins (OCD - 87% & SZ - 47%) are the results of shared genetics or shared upbringing (they are often treated very similarly)

Question 29

What is the conclusion for the nature-nurture debate

Answer 29

Therefore, the nature-nurture debate has changed in recent years - instead of trying to decide whether a behaviour we do is nature or nurture

Psychologists are now more concerned with the RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION of each

Question 30

What approach that you know of is included in the nature-nurture debate

Answer 30

The interactionist approach

Question 31

In the context of nature-nurture, what stance does the interactionist approach take

Answer 31

Takes a stance between the extreme nature and extreme nurture debate. It argues that both genetics and the environment play a part in human behaviour (diathesis-stress model)

Question 32

What is an example of the interactionist approach and how does this relate to the context of the nature-nurture debate

Answer 32

This approach states that genetics give us a predisposition to certain behaviours - the potential to act in a certain way -
however, our genetics are then influenced by the environment.

An example of this is OCD ->
An individual may be born with the h-sert gene which makes them vulnerable to OCD but may not develop the disorder unless they experience a stressful life event (triggering theirOCD)

think - so you may basically have the gene for a disorder but its saying that you may not get the disorder until an environmental factor affects it/triggers it
you need BOTH