IR 349 Midterm Flashcards
The Treaty of Vienna & the Concert of Europe (1815-1819)
After the Napoleonic Wars, the European victors (G.B, Austria, Russia, and Prussia) met to restore Europe as it was prior to the global conflicts that stemmed from the French Revolution. The first meeting of these victors, also known as the “Concert of Europe,” propelled a series of meetings from 1815-1819 in attempts to restore older diplomatic mechanisms in Europe such as multilateral diplomacy and a balance of power. In addition to restoring older practices, it determined who the Great Powers were while implementing new humanitarian norms, like the condemnation of the slave trade. Thus, creating a surge of more humanitarian movements and served as the forerunner for the League of Nations.
The Standard of Civilization (19th Century)
A vague principle in 19th century international law that determined a state’s membership into the international community and effectively benefitted only European powers. This principle caused non-European states, who were deemed barbaric or uncivilized, to implement modern military, administrative, and political reforms to make their institutions legible to European states. This standard was meant to justify the unequal treaties between Europe and non-European states such as China, Japan, Mexico, and the Ottoman Empire. In addition to justifying these unequal treaties, it also justified the diminishment of sovereignty among non-European states by arguing that only the states that were capable of providing a certain level of justice were entitled to full sovereign rights.
The Capitulations & Extraterritoriality
The capitulations (which started in the 1600s) were originally temporary grants bestowed by particular Sultans on Europeans to help facilitate trade between Europe and the Ottoman Empire. However, during the 1830’s, the capitulations became increasingly unequal and were no longer reciprocal as European residents were exempt from taxation and local law, which was a crucial reason why the OE sided with Germany during WWI. Similarly, during the later part of the 19th century, the U.S and Europe imposed these unequal treaties on China and Japan, also known as extraterritorialities, which highlighted the reality that international law was not a choice for weaker, non-European states heightening their tensions with Europe
Lin Zexu
In 1838, the Qing Emperor decided to try to enforce the ban on opium imports and sent a top Qing official, Lin Zexu, to Canton to help end the illegal opium trade by capturing addicts and punishing drug dealers. Zexu also wrote a letter to Queen Victoria criticizing Britain for the trade of opium into China despite it being banned in Great Britain and threatened to cease all trade with Britain if the smuggling continued. However, the letter proved to be ineffective causing the Chinese to place a ban on opium importation through opium confiscation, which Britain viewed as a limitation on free trade, resulting in Britain initiating The First Opium War to overturn the opium ban.
The Monroe Doctrine (1823)
A form of U.S. foreign policy enacted by President Monroe in 1823 that declared the Western Hemisphere closed to any further European colonization , while the U.S would refrain from any involvement in Europe. This policy essentially determined any European interference in Latin America as a threat to U.S. security, however it was not a legal guarantee of Latin American sovereignty. Instead it was a policy that could be ignored or defended depending on US interests, which ultimately justified U.S and British (military/administrative) interventions in the Americas.
Tanzimat/Imperial Reorganizations (1839-1876)
During the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire underwent a series of reforms, driven by pressures from Europe, which led to mass modernization, Westernization, bureaucratization and standardization.The Ottoman Empire implemented significant legal reforms, including the codification of Islamic law through the Ottoman Civil Law Code, the establishment of secular courts in 1864 to align Islamic law with European norms, and penal reforms aimed at gaining international legitimacy. The Ottoman Constitution declared Islam the state religion but ensured freedom of religion and equal rights for all subjects, while reform edicts in 1838 and 1856 promised administrative reforms, standardized military conscription, and anti-corruption measures.
Concessions & Foreign Loans (1863 for ME and lasted until late 20th century)
Concessions were land grants/property from non-European states to European states in exchange for building infrastructure, transportation, and communication systems in efforts to adapt to the standards of civilization. However this increased infrastructure resulted in the exploitation of natural resources within these non-European states as they lost control over their economic autonomy to European powers. Concessionary capitalism was significant for the development of mining, petroleum, and railway enterprises in Mexico and Iran, leading to the crucial creation of the Suez Canal.
The Lieber Code/General Order no.100 (1863)
The Lieber Code was a war manual that was created after President Lincoln sought a set of instructions that instructed Union officers on how to treat captured Confederate soldiers as prisoners of wars. It essentially argued that determining whether or not a fighter qualified as a soldier required falling under a specific criteria that underlies the laws of war such as uniforms or badges that separated fighters from civilians; an organized command structure that could enforce discipline and the rules of combat; and the institutional capacity to take and keep prisoners. The Lieber code helped to reiterate that military force was only justified by military necessity which emphasized the need for codified laws of war.
Meiji Restoration (1868)
The Meiji Restoration was a case of defensive development, which occurred after the Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown, allowing the emperor to take back his power. He made the decision to modernize Japan to assert equality with the West to save Japan from Western imperialism which was achieved through rapid industrialization and war. This included implementing a new constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament, instituting compulsory education, and the establishment of a national army.
The Colonial Hajj (1860s-1920s)
An era characterized by imperial competition, disease, public health and inexpensive steam ship travel, which represented the dual threat of disease and anti-imperialistic ideas for European powers. Through the introduction of steam travel, the number of pilgrims who participated in Hajj significantly increased by the 19th century, with many of the pilgrims being colonial British subjects. European authorities attempted to regulate the influx of impoverished pilgrims participating in Hajj whom they deemed a “dangerous class,” since the growing number of pilgrims contributed to the spread of cholera and Pan-Islamist ideas.
Otto Von Bismarck (1815-1898)
Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman who played a crucial role in unifying Germany during the 19th century. In his “Blood & Iron” speech, Bismarck stressed the importance of military power via war, industrialization, and state centralization. This was achieved by granting full male suffrage to weaken liberals in the Reichstag, securing support from industrialists through high tariffs on manufactured goods, and expanding compulsory education along with welfare programs (like medical insurance and pensions) to guarantee the people’s support. Bismarck’s domestic policies strengthened Germany and he was responsible for initiating the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884 to avoid war between European states.
The Unification of Germany (1866-1871)
Before unification, Germany was politically fragmented and divided into a series of principalities. However, the Prussian statesman Otto von Bismarck sought to create a German identity and political stability and through a series of wars (the Austro-Prussian and the Franco-Prussian), Bismarck was able to unify German speaking principalities of Central Europe under Prussia. After this unification, Bismarck implemented various reforms such as welfare entitlements and the right to vote to strengthen Germany’s legitimacy, which set the stage for it to become one of the most powerful empires in Europe.
Order of Progress in Mexico during the reign of Porfirio Diaz (1876-1911)
Under President Porfirio Diaz, the motto “Order and Progress” embodied his strategy to stabilize Mexico after decades of turmoil by enforcing authoritarian rule and prioritizing state centralization. His regime promoted foreign investment and modernization, leading to improved infrastructure like railroads and telegraphs, but relied on rigged elections and repression to maintain control, benefiting a small elite while worsening the average Mexican’s standard of living. This focus on economic progress made Mexico appealing to foreign powers, particularly the U.S. and Britain, but also raised concerns about the regime’s failure to protect national sovereignty as foreign companies dominated key sectors like railroads and mining, ultimately affecting Mexico’s international standing.
Chinese Exclusion Act (United States) [1882]
The Chinese Exclusion Act excluded the entry of Chinese laborers after 1882 while Chinese who arrived before 1882, merchants, teachers and students were exempt. It was the first time U.S legislation restricted immigration based on race and raised concerns regarding the question of law enforcement. Concerns surrounding how officials were going to identify individuals’ identities as they crossed the border led to the invention of the modern system of passports/identity cards and the rise of the global “color line” after Chinese-Americans were required to carry I.D documentation at all times.
The Berlin Conference (1884-85) & “Effective Occupation”
The Berlin Conference was initiated by Bismarck and it was a major gathering of the concert of Europe where state representatives negotiated the boundaries and rules of European expansion in Africa to avoid warfare between European powers and declare opposition against slavery. This included the introduction of “Effective Occupation,” which specified that in order for a “Great Power” to have a hold on a colony and exploit territory, there must be physical possession of the land through establish infrastructure (telegraphs, railways, etc) to demonstrate occupation (done w/ the help of chartered companies). 14 empires were represented and it was the first time the U.S and the OE participated in concert style diplomacy; however, no African states or empires were represented at the conference.
