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ODDR- Immunology > Introduction to the Immune System 2 > Flashcards

Introduction to the Immune System 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Where are all our immune effector cells derived from?

A

From a common pluripotent progenitor cell (Hematopoietic stem cells/0 type in bone marrow

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2
Q

What are all our immune effector cells a part of?

A

Our Hematopoietic blood system

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3
Q

What are pluripotent progenitor cell?

A

Hematopoietic stem cells

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4
Q

What are all our white blood cells called?

A

Leukocytes

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5
Q

Name some white blood cells

A

Ganulocytes

Megakaryocyte

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6
Q

Following stem cell division what can a daughter cell do?

A
  1. Divide

2. Differentiate

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7
Q

Why is it a benefit that some of our daughter cells don’t differentiate but divided into more stem cells?

A

Means we have stem cells to replenish our blood system as we get older

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8
Q

What is the first step of differentiation a stem cell can take?

A

Cells can either become:

  1. A Common lymphoid progenitor
  2. A common myeloid progenitor
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9
Q

What do Common lymphoid progenitor give rise to?

A

B cells
T cells
NK cells

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10
Q

What do Common myeloid progenitor give rise to?

A

Granulocytes and megakaryocytes (White blood cells)

Or dendrites

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11
Q

What happens to a cell as it further differentiates?

A

They lose the ability to self renew

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12
Q

Name our adaptive effector cells

A 
B cells (which give plasma cells)
T cells (which give activated T cells)
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13
Q

Name our innate effector cells

A 
NK cells (which give us activated NK cells)
Dendritic cells (both mature and immature)
Neutrophils 
Eosinophils
Basophils 
Monocytes
Mast cells
Macrophages
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14
Q

What lineage do dendritic cells come from?

A

Ether a myeloid or lymphoid lineage

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15
Q

Name the only type if lymphocytes that are considered innate

A

NK cells

natural killer cells

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16
Q

What are monocytes?

A

The precursor to macrophages

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17
Q

Which is the mature effector: the macrophage or the monocyte?

A

The macrophage

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18
Q

Where are immature monocytes found?

A

They circulate the blood

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19
Q

Where are mature macrophages found?

A

Found in most tissues in sub mucosal layers.

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20
Q

What is the function of monocytes and macrophages

A
  1. They are the first responders
  2. Phagocytic
  3. Engulf and kill pathogens and infected cells
  4. Clear dead cells and debris
  5. Bactericidal
  6. Present antigen to T cells
  7. Activate other immune cells
  8. Induce inflammation
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21
Q

Do macrophages and monocytes have a long or short lifespan?

A

Long

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22
Q

What does it mean a cell is phagocytic?

A

They can engulf and kill pathogens and infected cells

They can also clear dead cells and debris

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23
Q

What is another name for granulocytes?

A

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes

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24
Q

Name the 3 types of granulocytes

A
  1. Neutrophils
  2. Eosinophils
  3. Basophils
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25
Q

Which of the 3 types of granulocytes has a role in the immune response?

A

Neutrophils

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26
Q

What is the main role of Eosinophils and Basophils?

A

Main role is anti parasitic

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27
Q

Where are neutrophils found?

A

In the blood they migrate to infection sites

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28
Q

What are the functions of granulocytes?

A
  1. Phagocytic

2. Bactericidal

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29
Q

Describe the life span of neutrophils

A

They have a short life span

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30
Q

What is pus made up of?

A

Dead neutrophils

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31
Q

Describe the morphology of neutrophils

A

They have lobes nuclei

Their cytoplasms is speckled with cytotoxins

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32
Q

Where are immature dendritic cells found?

A

Under surface epithelia and in solid organs

They migrate to lymph nodes and mature there

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33
Q

What are the functions of dendritic cells?

A
  1. Phagocytic /Macropinocytosis
  2. Take up antigen to present to adaptive arm
  3. Activate cells of the adaptive arm
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34
Q

Where are natural killer cells found?

A

In the blood

They migrate to infected tissues and tumours

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35
Q

What are the functions of natural killer cells?

A
  1. Extracellular release of cytotoxic granules
  2. Anti viral
  3. Anti tumour
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36
Q

What type of cells are natural killer cells?

A

They are lymphocytes but are considered within the innate arm of the immune system

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37
Q

How do dendrites mature?

A

They are immature in the tissues but when they engulf bacteria and migrate they mature

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38
Q

What do dendritic cells do?

A

Take antigens from the site infection to the lymph nodes and they initiate the adaptive immune response

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39
Q

Describe the morphology of natural killer cells

A

They have a large single lobed nucleus
Bigger nucleus to cytoplasm
They have cytotoxins

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40
Q

Which cells do our NK cells kill?

A

Non- self cells

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41
Q

Name some phagocytic cells we have

A
  1. Macrophages
  2. Neutrophils
  3. Dendritic cells
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42
Q

How to phagocytic cells decide what they want to engulf?

A

By using different receptors on their cell surface and within the cell

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43
Q

What do Fc receptors look for?

A

Antibody coated pathogens

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44
Q

What do compliment receptors look for?

A

Activated compliment molecules like: CRb

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45
Q

What do receptors on phagocytic cells look for?

A
  1. Self cells

2. Non-self cells

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46
Q

What does PAMP stand for?

A

Pathogen associated molecular patterns

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47
Q

What do pattern recognition receptors look for?

A

Common structures we see in microbes (PAMPs)

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48
Q

What do we call common structures we see in microbes but not in higher organisms?

A

Pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)

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49
Q

Name the different types of PAMPS

A
  1. Lectin like. Dectin 1
  2. Scavenger receptors.
  3. Toll like receptors
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50
Q

Give examples of toll like receptors

A

TLR4

TLR6

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51
Q

What are toll like receptors always expressed as?

A

Diamers

Some are homodiamers and some are hetero diamers

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52
Q

Describe how phagocytosis is activated

A
  1. Compliment activation leads to deposition of c3b on the bacterial surface
  2. Compliment receptor 1 (CR!) on macrophage binds to C3b on bacteria
  3. Endocytosis of the bacterium by the macrophage
  4. Macrophage membrane fuses creating a membrane- bounded vesicle (Phagosome)
  5. Lysosomes fuse with the phagosomes forming phagolysosomes
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53
Q

What is a phagosome?

A

When macrophage membrane fuse creating a membrane-bounded vesicle

54
Q

What are phagolysosomes?

A

When lysosomes fuse with phagosomes

55
Q

How many toll like receptors do humans have?

A

10

56
Q

What do TLRs detect?

A

They each recognise a distinct set of PAMP not found in vertebrates

57
Q

Name some compounds toll like receptors detect

A
  1. LPS of gram negative bacterial outer membranes
  2. Lipoteichoic acids of gram positive cell walls
  3. ds RNA
  4. glucans such as zymosan (fungi)
58
Q

What is Lipoteichoic acid recognised by?

A

TLR2 and TLR6

59
Q

What is LPS recognised by?

A

TLR4

60
Q

Where are TLRs expressed

A

Some are expressed on the cell surface and some inside the cell itself
Some are present on our epithelial cells

61
Q

What do TLRs expressed inside the cell detect?

A

They detect molecules that may be present if we are under inter cellular attack like viruses or double stranded RNA

62
Q

What do TLRs on epithelial cells do?

A

They trigger the cells to release communicating molecules like inflammatory cytokines and antimicrobial peptides

63
Q

Name some of the antimicrobial mechanisms phagocytes employ once they have engulfed a pathogen

A
  1. Acidification
  2. Toxic oxygen derived products
  3. Toxic nitrogen oxides
  4. Antimicrobial peptides
  5. Enzymes
  6. Competiors
64
Q

What is Acidification?

A

When a phagosome reduces the ph to around 3.5-4 which can lead to bacteriostatic or bactericidal

65
Q

What is the respiratory burst?

A

It is triggered by phagocytes when they engulf a pathogen

It results in the cells producing a lot of toxic oxygen species and nitrogen species

66
Q

Name some toxic oxygen derived products

A
  1. Superoxide O2-
  2. Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
  3. Singlet oxygen
  4. Hydroxyl radical
  5. Hypo-halite
67
Q

Name some antimicrobial peptides macrophages produce

A

Cathelicidin (LL37)

68
Q

Name some antimicrobial peptides neutrophils produce

A 
Cathelicidin (LL37)
Alpha defensins
Beta defensives
Azurocidin 
Bacterial permeability inducing protein 
Lactoferrin
69
Q

What enzymes do phagocytes produce to break down engulfed pathogens?

A

Lysozyme

Acid hydrolyses

70
Q

What does lysozyme do?

A

It breaks down cell walls of some gram positive bacteria

71
Q

What do Acid hydrolyses do?

A

Break down ingested microbes

72
Q

Name some Acid hydrolyses

A

Elastase and other proteases

73
Q

Name some competitor molecules neutrophils produce

A

Lactoferrin

Vitamin B

74
Q

How does lactoferrin act as a competitor

A

It binds to iron ions and locks them up (sequesters iron ions) so that bacteria cannot use them

75
Q

What are cytokines?

A

A small protein that affects the behaviour of other cells

They act via a specific cytokine receptor expressed on the surface of the cell type they affect

76
Q

What are chemokine?

A

A small chemoattractant protein that stimulates the migration and activation of cells
They act via specific receptors expressed on the surface of the cell type they affect

77
Q

Cytokines produced by lymphocytes are called what?

A

Interleukins

78
Q

Macrophages have an important role in what?

A

Co ordination of the immune response

79
Q

What stimulates the macrophages to release cytokines?

A

Engulfing a pathogen

80
Q

What do macrophages release?

A

Cytokines

Chemokines

81
Q

What do cytokines have a profound effect on?

A

Cells lining the blood vessels (our vascular endothelial)

This makes the blood vessels to be more permeable (Leaky)

82
Q

What is an advantage of cytokines making our blood vessels leakier?

A

Allows neutrophils to crawl out through the blood vessels near the infection site
Allows more plasma fluid to get to the infection site

83
Q

What do chemokine cells do during an infection?

A

They draw the neutrophils to them telling them were to go

84
Q

How does the compliment system help when they body suffers from an infection?

A

The formation of the membrane attack complex will allow for cell lysis to occur

85
Q

Describe what steps the body takes initially when it is infected

A
  1. Increased permeability which increases flow of plasma proteins (eg compliment) to site
  2. Diameter of blood vessels increases this slows down blood flow
  3. Clotting of some local micro vessels to inhibit infection spread
  4. Endothelium now promotes leukocyte binding, increasing extravasion.
86
Q

Describe the innate defence system

Eg response time, cel recognition, memory

A
  1. Responds on minutes-hours
  2. Is always presnt
  3. Has a limited range of antigen detection receptors
  4. It is unchanged during the response
  5. Genome encoded receptors
  6. No memory
87
Q

Describe the adaptive defence system

Eg response time, cel recognition, memory

A
  1. Take days-weals to response
  2. Is usually silent till activated
  3. Has a vast range of antigen receptors
  4. Receptor recognition improves during the response
  5. Receptors are not genome encoded
  6. Has memory cells
88
Q

What initiates the adaptive immune response?

A

Dendritic cells

89
Q

What happens to innate response when the adaptive immune response is initiated?

A

Increases the efficiency of our innate response

90
Q

Define antigen

A

Any molecule or fragment of molecule that is recognised by the specific receptors found on B and T lymphocytes

91
Q

Define specificity

A

The ability of an antibody/ antigen receptor to distinguish a particular antigen from other antigens

92
Q

What does adaptive immunity generate?

A

Vast range of recognition specificity

Random generation of specificity

93
Q

How are effector cells made?

A
  1. A single progenitor cell gives rise to a large number of lymphocytes each with a different specificity
  2. Removal of potentially self-reactive immature lymphocytes by clone deletion
  3. Pool of mature naive lymphocytes forms
  4. Proliferation and differential of activated specific lymphocytes to form a clone of effector cells
94
Q

What does each immature B cell have>

A

A single and unique specificity for antigen

95
Q

We need more than one individual cell of each specificity to combat an infection, how is there space in the haematopoietic system?

A

A particular cel encounters its complimentary antigen

This causes the cell to proliferate and form a clonal army

96
Q

How can Random receptor generation cause problems with recognising self and non self

A

As we produce self antigen receptors which have to be removed by clonal deletion when the cells are still immature in the bone marrow or thymus
Cells under apoptosis

97
Q

What problems can occur if our body can’t distinguish between self and non self

A

Our body will start attacking its own cells-> auto immune disease

98
Q

What is clonal deletion?

A

Apoptosis of lymphocytes that have antigens complimentary to self cells

99
Q

How is there enough space in the genome to encode all these receptors

A

The DNA sequences encoding antigen receptors in mature effector cells is different in progenitor / stem cells

100
Q

What happens after clonal expansion?

A

Cells further differentiate to generate effector cells, plasma cells, memory cells and effector T cells as

101
Q

What cells do B cells further differentiate into?

A

Memory cells and plasma cells

102
Q

What cells do T cells further differentiate into?

A

Effector T cells and memory cells

103
Q

What Is our B cell antigen receptor?

A

A membrane bound antibody molecule (immunoglobulin )

104
Q

Name our B cell antigen receptor

A

mIg (membrane immunoglobulins)

It binds ti antigen alone

105
Q

What Is our T cell antigen receptor?

A

The T cell receptor can’t recognise antigen on its own it can only see it is antigen if the antigen is complexed with another molecule called Major Histocompatibility Complex

106
Q

What does MHC stand for?

A

Major Histocompatibility Complex

107
Q

Define epitope

A

A site on an antigen that is recognised by specific lymphocyte receptors.

108
Q

What are epitopes made of?

A

Carbohydrates, proteins or both:

109
Q

Name the 2 types of epitopes

A
  1. Continuous/Linear

2. Conformational / discontinuous

110
Q

Describe continuous/ linear epitopes

A

They are a single fragment of polypeptide chain

111
Q

Describe Conformational / discontinuous epitopes

A

amino acids that are not continuous in the polypeptide sequence but are brought together in 3D structure.

112
Q

Where do B cell recognise epitopes?

A

Epitopes found on surface of antigen structure.

113
Q

Where do T cell recognise epitopes?

A

more likely to recognise linear short peptide (often buried within antigen structure) presented by an MHC molecule. Continuous.

114
Q

What are multivalent antigens?

A

One antigen that contains many epitopes

115
Q

Describe multivalent antigens

A

Can be all the same (repeated sequence) but more commonly are chemically distinct.

Epitopes within folded myoglobin chain.

116
Q

Which innate cell would you find in most tissues in the sub mucosal layer?

A

Mature macrophages

117
Q

Which innate cell would you find circuiting the blood?

A

Immature monocytes

118
Q

Neutrophils are what?

A

Granulocytes (Polymorphonuclear leukocytes)

119
Q

Which receptor looks for antibody coated pathogens?

A

Fc receptors

120
Q

Which receptors look for Activated compliment molecules like: CRb?

A

Complement receptors

121
Q

Which receptors look and target non self cells?

A

Pattern recognition receptors

122
Q

What are pathogen associated molecular patterns?

A

They are common structures we see in microbes that are detected by pathogen recognition receptors

123
Q

What does TLR4 recognise?

A

LPS

124
Q

What are Interleukins?

A

Cytokines produced by lymphocytes

125
Q

How do cytokines act?

A

via a specific cytokine receptor expressed on the surface of the cell type they effect

126
Q

What do TLR2 and TLR6 recognise?

A

Lipoteichoic acids

127
Q

What does PRR stand for?

A

Pattern recognition receptors

128
Q

What does PAMPs stand for?

A

Pathogen associated molecular patterns

129
Q

What does TLR stand for?

A

Toll like receptors

130
Q

What makes up 90% of our lymphocytes?

A

B and T cells

131
Q

What is the name of an antigen that contains many epitopes?

A

Multivalent antigens

132
Q

B and T cells make up what?

A

90% of our lymphocytes

ODDR- Immunology (6 decks)

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