Introduction to Teams in Organizations

Question 1

Groupthink

Answer 1

A mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. Main aim is to maintain consensus and group harmony

Question 2

Definitions of groups

Answer 2

Lewin: people are a group when they experience similar outcomes
Bales: face-to-face interaction and group means members that meet on a regular basis
Sherif and Sherif: social structure is essential
Tajfel: groups exist when members identify with group

Question 3

Group entitativity

Answer 3

The degree to which a collection of people are perceived as being bonded together in a coherent unit.

Question 4

What are important group properties?

Answer 4

Interdependence: when a group member’s individual performance or outcomes depend on individual and group actions
Importance: how important the group is due to consequences and tasks
Interaction: form of communication among group members
Permeability: how easy/ difficult it is to enter or leave the group
Similarity: forming a group due to similar interests
Cohesion: force binding members to the group, persuading them to stay which motivates the group
Group size: number of group members
Duration: how long the group stays together as a group
Group structure: developed specific characteristics, norms, roles etc

Question 5

Task interdependence

Answer 5

refers to the degree to which group members are mutually dependent on one another to accomplish their tasks

Question 6

Outcome interdependence

Answer 6

refers to the degree to which group members are mutually dependent to receive valued outcomes

Question 7

Task cohesion

Answer 7

Shared commitment to group’s tasks

Question 8

Interpersonal cohesion

Answer 8

Attraction to the group

Question 9

Why is the relationship between cohesion and performance complicated?

Answer 9

Relationship between cohesion and performance could depend on goal acceptance, motivating members to work hard towards performance goals. There was no relation between cohesion and performance for groups that did not accept company goals.

Question 10

What is the most important predictor of group entitativity?

Answer 10

Interaction was the best predictor, but group size and permeability showed a weak negative relationship

Question 11

Why are groups important?

Answer 11

• tasks cannot be completed by individuals working alone, or less inefficient or more fun in a group
• fulfils social need to belong, improving wellbeing
• strong resistance when there are threats to dissolve the group, people want to be liked and included and being rejected by group members has negative consequences for wellbeing
• groups help to understand our world through social comparison theory (people want to have accurate views of themselves and of the world by turning to others)

Question 12

Social identity theory

Answer 12

This is the part of the self-concept that is derived from group membership. So, group membership contributes to self-identity. Argues that seeing yourself and others as members of groups to reduce uncertainty and make sense of our world

Question 13

Exchange theory

Answer 13

Argues that social relations fulfill individual’s needs through exchange processes like material goods, interpersonal helping, and psychological goods like love, friendship and approval. This theory argues that social relations involves costs, benefits, but benefits need to exceed the costs to yield profit. Satisfaction depends on degree to which other relationships exist to obtain more profit

Question 14

Qualitative research

Answer 14

Involves studying groups for extended periods of time like interviews, observations. Offers a rich, detailed picture, resulting in an elaborate description. But only a few participants can be studied extensively-> lacks generalizability. Data can be very rich so drawing conclusions is hard-> subjective interpretation. This method is better for generating theories and finding new areas of research but less useful for testing theories

Question 15

Surveys and correlational designs

Answer 15

Giving structured questionnaires with rating scales to a large number of people. This is used to quantify variables, using correlation coefficients. Can also be studied longitudinally. Strengths: quantifying variables and relations, real world relevance. Limitations: rely on subjective data which could be biased, not possible to establish causality and third-variable problem.

Question 16

How can different sources be used to collect data?

Answer 16

• using different people to measure different variables
• combining questionnaires with other data sources

Question 17

Cross-lagged panel correlations

Answer 17

This is measuring the same variables at different points in time, measuring auto-correlations which reflect stability over time. Makes it easy to look at causality issues by seeing if one variable preces the other and the other.

Question 18

Experiments

Answer 18

A situation is created under the control of the researcher, which allows for manipulations. Participants are assigned to conditions at random. Strengths: testing for causal relations due to manipulation, 3rd variables are evenly distributed (minimizing systematic differences). Limitation: lacks ecological validity

Question 19

Quasi-experiments

Answer 19

This is using the existing situation to look for differences between conditions, but results in a lack of control over the situation. Third variables could play a role, and less likely to be able to draw causal conclusions

Question 20

Model of group socialization

Answer 20

Distinguishes 5 stages of group membership: investigation, socialization, maintenance, re-socialization, remembrance. Moving from one stage to the next involves role transition. Investigation to socialization is transition of entry, then acceptance (new to full member), divergence (full to marginal member) and exit (marginal to ex-member). The stages differ in commitment: the degree to which a group member identifies with a group and maintains membership

Question 21

What is important for entry?

Answer 21

This is marked by a ritual or ceremony, the initiation can sometimes be unpleasant. This can deter prospective members not committed to the new group, can lead to strong relationships. Linked to cognitive dissonance

Question 22

What is important during socialization?

Answer 22

New members learn the norms of the group (the rules that prescribe appropriate attitudes and behaviours) and their role in the group (set of behaviours with a certain position). Commitment usually increases. But it depends on the staffing level of the group which is whether the number of group members is similar to the ideal one. It is easier to become a member for an understaffed group than an overstaffed one

Question 23

What is important during the maintenance stage?

Answer 23

There are high levels of commitment , members occupy the role in the group that satisfies their needs and achieve the group’s goals. Role of leader, recruiter and trainer (socialization of new members). If role negotiations are successful, the relation between the group and the member will be rewarding

Question 24

Why does divergence occur?

Answer 24

Group members lose interest, other groups are more rewarding, commitment declines due to failed expectations of the member. Divergence can follow by re-socialization, persuading members not to leave or accommodate their wishes. After that there is usually an exit and can be social exclusion.

Question 25

What occurs in the remembrance stage?

Answer 25

The ex member and the group retrospectively evaluate each other, can maintain commitment to ex-members if positive. Ex-members can try to destroy their former group due to revenge

Question 26

What did research find about pressure on deviants?

Answer 26

Group members usually exert pressure on members who deviate from the group norm, but if unsuccessful, the group will exclude them. There was a high number of communications towards the deviate, representing attempts to pressure them to change their position

Question 27

How do groups develop?

Answer 27

1. Forming is when group members can feel insecure due to not knowing each other and the expectations, but they begin to develop a shared identity
2. Storming involves challenges in developing a group structure, disagreements about roles of the group
3. Norming is when group members agree on goals, and develop norms for group interaction
4. Performing is when efforts are directed to achieving the group’s task
5. Adjourning is when the task has been accomplished or abandoned, the group will end

Question 28

What is the best-known coding system of group interaction?

Answer 28

Interaction process analysis which distinguishes between task behaviours and socioemotional behaviours (interpersonal relations in the group which can be positive or negative). Task-related behaviour needed to accomplish goals, but can lead to conflict. So socio-emotional behaviour needed for group harmony. These change depending on group stages (forming -> positive socioemotional behaviours). More time together meant more task-related behaviours, the opposite for less time. Criticism: changes occur gradually rather than abruptly

Question 29

How can IPA be used to look at status and roles inside a group?

Answer 29

• groups develop a speaking hierarchy as some group members talk more than others, and this discrepancy increases with the size of the group. People who talk more are seen as more influential
• those who engage in task-related behaviours are task specialists but those engaging in socio-emotional behaviours are socio-emotional specialists. these are less influential but were more liked

Question 30

Expectation states theory

Answer 30

Discusses how status structures emerge in groups and how they are shaped by the status of group members. Assumes that inequalities in a group are due to performance expectations (members form expectations about the usefulness of each member’s contributions). These are influenced by status characteristics which is distinguished by diffuse status characteristics (race, gender, age) and specific status characteristics. There can be cultural expectations about competencies, which need to be falsified to lose their influence.

Question 31

Why does majority influence occur?

Answer 31

This is when a larger subgroup produced conformity in a smaller sub-group, which is due to normative social influence (conforming to expectations of others and having positive evaluations) and informational social influence (to gain evidence about reality). NSI more likely when part of a group for being collectively reward, but weaker when participants were anonymous. When pps had to do the task from memory, they had a stronger ISI effect as they relied on social reality

Question 32

What is NSI and ISI related to?

Answer 32

NSI is related to public compliance- a change in behaviour without changing private beliefs. ISI is related to a real change in private opinions known as private acceptance

Question 33

What did Stoner find?

Answer 33

He asked groups to respond to a number of scenarios with a degree of risk, had a dilemma between high probability of success and low value or low probability of success and high value. Responded to the dilemmas in private then as a group and made an individual decision. The group judgement was more risky than the average judgements. If answers were cautious, then they became even more cautious. So the choice became even more extreme-> group polarization.

Question 34

Why does group polarization occur?

Answer 34

Social comparison: want to be seen as favourable, want to give true opinion without being too extreme or deviate too much from group members. At the start the initial opinion is less extreme, but with similar opinions they express true opinions. Favourable to be slightly different
Persuasive arguments theory: position on an issue is determined by number and persuasiveness of pro and con arguments, but group members provide different and new valid arguments, which supports the opinion even more

Question 35

How does minority influence work?

Answer 35

This is when smaller subgroups produce change in larger subgroups. Minorities can be influential as they make other group members less certain about their own opinions by being consistent (confederate changed opinion of other participants Mascovici et al). Conversion theory argues that minority influence will results in private acceptance as they are less threatening and if consistent with good arguments, can convince others. But people will not shown conversion of a focal issue (due to large association with minorities) but change opinion on a related issue (indirect influence)

Question 36

What did research findings suggest?

Answer 36

Majorities had a bigger influence on minorities through direct influence and in public and private. But minorities had more influence on indirect influence, and higher consistency resulted in more minority influence-> Mascovici partially right

Question 37

How do minorities and majorities stimulate different thought processes?

Answer 37

Having a different opinion to a majority causes stress which narrows attention, so cognitive efforts are limited to verifying the majority position. Most people assume the minority is incorrect, but if maintained will consider the issue more thoroughly. Known as divergent thinking, linked to more open-minded thinking and creativity

Question 38

How was minority vs majority studied?

Answer 38

Participants told that either 80% of slides were judged to be blue and 20% green or the other way round. They judged the slides of the colour, with a confederate and had to write associations with the words. When exposed to a minority, the associations were more original.