Introduction to Study Unit

Question 1

Phrenology

Answer 1

The idea of phrenology was developed in an attempt to explain the different characteristics of individuals, and that the shape of the skull is determined by the individual’s personality and cognitions. This is because of the assumption that different regions of the brain are responsible for different functions and behaviours.

Question 2

Functional specialization

Answer 2

The failed idea of phrenology led to the further development of the concept of the brain having specialized regions of functioning, in which today we know that to some extent, they are.

Question 3

Language specialization

Answer 3

From cases of patients with brain damage in different areas of the brain, Broca concluded that language is further subdivided into:

speech recognition, speech production and
conceptual knowledge.

These subdivisions are processed in different areas of the brain.

Question 4

Cognitive neuroscience

Answer 4

Cognitive neuroscience involves using different methods of studies of people with brain damage to inform and develop theories of cognition

Question 5

The information-processing approach

Answer 5

The information-processing approach equates the brain and cognition to a sequence of processing stages, using the computer as a metaphor. This involves:
perceptual processes which are followed by attentional processes and transferred sequentially to short term memory and long term memory.

This approach uses a series of box-arrow diagrams, which supposedly allows for the understanding of cognition without reference to the brain.

Question 6

Top-down processing

Answer 6

Top-down processing refers to how through cognitive processes such as memory influence perception and the way we respond to stimuli in the environment.

Question 7

Cognitive neuroscience uses several methods to understand and study cognition

Answer 7

• Stimulation methods:
  involve using stimulation techniques across the scalp such as:
  transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and
  transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
• Recording methods:
  involve methods which record the electrical and magnetic properties of neurons:
  electrophysiological methods (EEG/ ERP) (and single cell recordings) and magnetophysiological methods (MEG).

Other recording methods involve recording physiological changes associated with blood supply to the brain and their progression over time: these are
- functional imaging methods (PET & fMRI): these are also called hemodynamic methods

Question 8

3 dimensions on which the methods of cognitive neuroscience can be placed upon:

Answer 8

1. Temporal resolution:
   i. The accuracy with which one can measure WHEN (e.g. a physiological event) an event occurs
   □ EEG, MEG, TMS: v. accurate
   □ PET and fMRI: not accurate (fMRI reflects the slower hemodynamic response)
2. Spatial resolution
   i. The accuracy with which one can measure WHERE an event is occuring
   - fMRI and PET
3. Invasiveness
   i. Refers to whether the equipment is located internally or externally
   □ PET: requires an injection of a radio-labelled isotope
   □ Single-cell recordings only used on non-human animals

Question 9

mind-body problem

Answer 9

The mind-body problem refers to how the brain (physical matter) can produce mental experiences.