Introduction to Social Science Research Flashcards
1
Q
agreement reality
A
Those things we “know” as part and parcel of the culture we share with those around us.
2
Q
epistemology
A
The science of knowing; systems of knowledge.
3
Q
replication
A
repeating an experiment to expose or reduce error.
3
Q
theory
A
A systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life: juvenile delinquency, for example, or perhaps social stratification or political revolution.
3
Q
attribute
A
A characteristic of a person or thing
4
Q
methodology
A
The science of finding out; procedures for
scientific investigation.
4
Q
variable
A
a logical set of attributes. The variable sex is made up of the attributes male and female
5
Q
paradigm
A
A model or framework for observation and understanding which shapes both what we see and how we understand it. The conflict paradigm causes us to see social behavior one way, the interactionist paradigm causes us to see it differently.
5
Q
induction
A
The logical model in which general principles are developed from specific observations. Having noted that Jews and Catholics are more likely to vote Democratic than are Protestants, you might conclude that religious minorities in the United States are more affiliated with the Democratic party, and then your task is to explain why.
5
Q
independent variable
A
A variable with values that are not problematical in an analysis but are taken as simply given.
An independent variable is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable. If we discover that religiosity is partly a function of sex—women are more religious than are men—sex is the independent variable and religiosity is the dependent variable. Note that any given variable might be treated as independent in one part of an analysis and as dependent in another part of it. Religiosity might become an independent variable in an explanation of crime.
5
Q
dependent variable
A
A variable assumed to depend on or be caused by another (called the independent variable). If you find that income is partly a function of amount of formal education, income is being treated as a dependent variable.
5
Q
idiographic
A
An approach to explanation in which we seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition or event. Imagine trying to list all the reasons why you chose to attend your particular college. Given all those reasons, it’s difficult to imagine your making any other choice.
5
Q
nomothetic
A
An approach to explanation in which we seek to identify a few causal factors that generally impact a class of conditions or events. Imagine the two or three key factors that determine which colleges students choose, such as proximity, reputation, and so forth.
5
Q
deduction
A
The logical model in which specific expectationsof hypotheses are developed on the basis of general principles. Starting from the general principle that all deans are meanies, you might anticipate that this one won’t let you change courses. This anticipation would be the result of deduction.
6
Q
tolerance for ambiguity
A
The ability to hold conflicting ideas in your mind simultaneously, without denying or dismissing any of them.
6
Q
microtheory
A
A theory aimed at understanding social life at the level of individuals and their interactions. Explaining how the play behavior of girls differs from that of boys is an example of microtheory.
6
Q
macrotheory
A
A theory aimed at understanding the “big picture” of institutions, whole societies, and the interactions among societies. Karl marx’s examination of the class struggle is an example of macrotheory.
6
Q
operational definition
A
The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized. The operational definition of “earning
an A in this course” might be “correctly answering at least
90 percent of the final-exam questions.”
6
Q
null hypothesis
A
in connection with hypothesis testing and tests of statistical significance, that hypothesis that suggests there is no relationship among the variables under study. you may conclude that the variables are related after having statistically rejected the null hypothesis.
6
Q
informed consent
A
norm in which subjects base their voluntary participation in research projects on a full understand- ing of the possible risks involved.
6
Q
interest convergence
A
The thesis that majority-group members will only support the interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group
6
Q
hypothesis
A
A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition; more gener- ally, an expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory. it is a statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is correct.
7
Q
operationalization
A
one step beyond conceptualization. operationalization is the process of developing operational defi- nitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.
7
Q
critical realism
A
A paradigm that holds that things are real insofar as they produce effects.
8
anonymity
Anonymity is guaranteed in a research project when neither the researchers nor the readers of the findings can identify a given response with a given respondent.
9
confidentiality
A research project guarantees confidentiality when the researcher can identify a given person’s responses but promises not to do so publicly.
10
debriefing
interviewing subjects to learn about their experience of participation in the project and to inform them of any unrevealed purpose. This is especially important if there’s a possibility that they have been damaged by that participation.
11
correlation
An empirical relationship between two variables such that (1) changes in one are associated with changes in the other, or (2) particular attributes of one variable are associated with particular attributes of the other. Thus, for example, we say that education and income are correlated in that higher levels of education are associated with higher levels of income. Correlation in and of itself does not constitute a causal relationship between the two variables, but it is one criterion of causality.
12
spurious relationship
A coincidental statistical correlation between two variables, shown to be caused by some third variable.
13
units of analysis
The what or whom being studied. In social science research the most typical units of analysis are individual people.
14
social artifact
Any product of social beings or their behavior. Can be a unit of analysis.
15
ecological fallacy
Erroneously basing conclusions about individuals solely on the observation of groups.
16
reductionism
A fault of some researchers: a strict limitation (reduction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the phenomenon under study.
16
cross-sectional study
A study based on observations repre- senting a single point in time.
17
sociobiology
A paradigm based on the view that social behavior can be explained solely in terms of genetic characteristics and behavior.
18
trend study
cohort study
19
longitudinal study
A study design involving data collected at different points in time.
20
panel study
A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same set of people (the sample or panel) at several points in time.
21
panel mortality
The failure of some panel subjects to continue participating in the study.
22
concept
A family of conceptions, such as “chair,” representing the whole class of actual chairs.
23
conceptualization
The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise. So you want to study prejudice. What do you mean by “prejudice”? Are there different kinds of prejudice? What are they?
24
indicator
An observation that we choose to consider as a reflection of a variable we wish to study. Thus, for example, attending religious services might be considered an indicator of religiosity.
25
dimension
A specifiable aspect of a concept. “Religiosity,” for example, might be specified in terms of a belief dimension, a ritual dimension, a devotional dimension, a knowledge dimen- sion, and so forth.
26
cognitive interviewing
Testing potential questions in an interview setting, probing to learn how respondents understand or interpret the questions.
27
nominal measure
A variable whose attributes have only the characteristics of exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness. In other words, a level of measurement describing a variable that has attributes that are merely different, as distinguished from ordinal, interval, or ratio measures. Gender is an example of a nominal measure.
28
ordinal measure
A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes we can rank-order along some dimen- sion. An example is socioeconomic status as composed of the attributes high, medium, low.
29
ratio measure
A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes that have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval measures and in addition are based on a “true zero” point. Age is an example of a ratio measure.
29
interval measure
A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes. The Fahrenheit temperature scale is an example of this, because the distance between 17 and 18 is the same as that between 89 and 90.
29
reliability
That quality of measurement methods that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon. In the context of a survey, we would expect that the question “Did you attend religious services last week?” would have higher reliability than the question “About how many times have you attended religious services in your life?” This is not to be confused with validity.
30
validity
A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure. For example, your IQ would seem a more valid measure of your intelligence than would the number of hours you spend in the library. Though the ultimate validity of a measure can never be proved, we may agree to its relative validity on the basis of face validity, criterion-related validity, content validity, construct validity, internal validation, and external validation. This must not be confused with reliability.
31
face validity
That quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable. That the frequency of attendance at religious services is some indication of a person’s religiosity seems to make sense without a lot of explanation. It has face validity.
32
construct validity
The degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships.
32
criterion-related validity
The degree to which a measure relates to some external criterion. Also called predictive validity.
32
content validity
The degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within a concept.
33
index
A type of composite measure that summarizes and rank-orders several specific observations and represents some more-general dimension
33
Bogardus social distance scale
A measurement technique for determining the willingness of people to participate in social relations—of varying degrees of closeness—with other kinds of people. It is an especially efficient technique in that one can summarize several discrete answers without losing any of the original details of the data.
33
item analysis
An assessment of whether each of the items included in a composite measure makes an independent contri- bution or merely duplicates the contribution of other items in the measure.
33
scale
A type of composite measure composed of several items that have a logical or empirical structure among them. Examples of scales include the Bogardus social distance, Guttman, Likert, and Thurstone scales.
34
external validation
The process of testing the validity of a measure, such as an index or scale, by examining its relationship to other presumed indicators of the same variable. If the index really measures prejudice, for example, it should correlate with other indicators of prejudice.
34
Thurstone scale
A type of composite measure, constructed in accordance with the weights assigned by “judges” to various indicators of some variables.
34
typology
The classification (typically nominal) of observa- tions in terms of their attributes on two or more variables.
The classification of newspapers as liberal-urban, liberal-rural, conservative-urban, or conservative-rural would be an example.
34
nonprobability sampling
Any technique in which samples are selected in some way not suggested by probability theory. Examples include reliance on available subjects as well as purposive (judgmental), snowball, and quota sampling.
35
Likert scale
A type of composite measure developed by
Rensis Likert in an attempt to improve the levels of measurement in social research through the use of standardized response categories in survey questionnaires to determine the relative intensity of different items. Likert items are those using such response categories as “strongly agree,” “agree,” “disagree,” and “strongly disagree.” Such items may be used in the construction of true Likert scales as well as other types of composite measures.
35
semantic differential
A questionnaire format in which the respondent is asked to rate something in terms of two, opposite adjectives (e.g., rate textbooks as “boring” or “exciting”), using qualifiers such as “very,” “somewhat,” “neither,” “somewhat,” and “very” to bridge the distance between the two opposites.
35
Guttman scale
A type of composite measure used to sum- marize several discrete observations and to represent some more-general variable.
35
purposive sampling
A type of nonprobability sampling in which the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative. Also called judgmental sampling.
36
snowball sampling
A nonprobability-sampling method, often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing.
37
quota sampling
A type of nonprobability sampling in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of prespecified characteristics, so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied.
38
informant
Someone who is well versed in the social phenom- enon that you wish to study and who is willing to tell you what he or she knows about it. not to be confused with a respondent.
39
probability sampling
The general term for samples selected in accordance with probability theory, typically involving some random- selection mechanism. Specific types of probability sampling include EPSEm, PPS, simple random sampling, and systematic sampling
40
element
That unit of which a population is composed and which is selected in a sample. Distinguished from units of analy- sis, which are used in data analysis.
41
representativeness
That quality of a sample of having
the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected. By implication, descriptions and explana- tions derived from an analysis of the sample may be assumed to represent similar ones in the population. Representativeness is enhanced by probability sampling and provides for generalizabil- ity and the use of inferential statistics.
41
population
The theoretically specified aggregation of the elements in a study.
42
study population
That aggregation of elements from which a sample is actually selected.
42
EPSEM (equal probability of selection method)
A sample design in which each member of a population has the same chance of being selected into the sample.
43
random selection
A sampling method in which each element has an equal chance of selection independent of any other event in the selection process.
43
sampling unit
That element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling.
44
statistic
The summary description of a variable in a sample, used to estimate a population parameter.
44
confidence level
The estimated probability that a popula- tion parameter lies within a given confidence interval. Thus, we might be 95 percent confident that between 35 and 45 percent of all voters favor Candidate A.
44
parameter
The summary description of a given variable in a population.
44
sampling error
The degree of error to be expected in prob- ability sampling. The formula for determining sampling error contains three factors: the parameter, the sample size, and the standard error.
44
sampling frame
That list or quasi list of units composing a population from which a sample is selected. If the sample is to be representative of the population, it is essential that the sampling frame include all (or nearly all) members of the population.
44
confidence interval
The range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to lie.
44
simple random sampling
A type of probability sampling in which the units composing a population are assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those numbers are included in the sample.
45
sampling interval
The standard distance (k) between elements selected from a population for a sample.
45
stratification
The grouping of the units composing a population into homogeneous groups (or strata) before sampling. This procedure, which may be used in conjunction with simple random, systematic, or cluster sampling, improves the representativeness of a sample, at least in terms of the variables used for stratification.
45
sampling ratio
The proportion of elements in the population that are selected to be in a sample.
45
cluster sampling
A multistage sampling in which natural groups (clusters) are sampled initially, with the members of each selected group being subsampled afterward. for example, you might select a sample of U.S. colleges and universities from a directory, get lists of the students at all the selected schools, then draw samples of students from each.
45
PPS (probability proportionate to size)
This refers to a type of multistage cluster sample in which clusters are selected, not with equal probabilities (see EPSEM) but with probabilities proportionate to their sizes—as measured by the number of units to be subsampled.
45
weighting
Assigning different weights to cases that were selected into a sample with different probabilities of selection. In the simplest scenario, each case is given a weight equal to the inverse of its probability of selection. When all cases have the same chance of selection, no weighting is necessary.
45
systematic sampling
A type of probability sampling in which every kth unit in a list is selected in the sample—for example, every 25th student in the college directory.
45
control group
In experimentation, a group of subjects to whom no experimental stimulus is administered and who resemble the experimental group in all other respects. The comparison of the control group and the experimental group at the end of the experiment points to the effect of the experimental stimulus.
45
posttesting
The remeasurement of a dependent variable among subjects after they’ve been exposed to a stimulus repre- senting an independent variable.
45
pretesting
he measurement of a dependent variable among subjects before they are exposed to a stimulus representing an independent variable.
45
experimental group
In experimentation, a group of subjects to whom an experimental stimulus is administered.
45
matching
In connection with experiments, the procedure whereby pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their similarities on one or more variables, and one member of the pair is assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group.
46
double-blind experiment
An experimental design in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control.
46
randomization
A technique for assigning experimental subjects to experimental and control groups randomly.
46
internal invalidity
Refers to the possibility that the conclusions drawn from experimental results may not accurately reflect what went on in the experiment itself
46
external invalidity
Refers to the possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may not be generalizable to the “real” world.
46
field experiment
A formal experiment conducted outside the laboratory, in a natural setting
47
respondent
A person who provides data for analysis by responding to a survey questionnaire.
48
questionnaire
A document containing questions and other types of items designed to solicit information appropriate for analysis. Questionnaires are used primarily in survey research but also in experiments, field research, and other modes of observation.
49
response rate
The number of people participating in a survey divided by the number selected in the sample, in the form of a percentage. This is also called the completion rate or, in self-administered surveys, the return rate: the percentage of questionnaires sent out that are returned.
49
open-ended questions
Questions for which the respondent is asked to provide his or her own answers. In-depth, qualitative interviewing relies almost exclusively on open-ended questions.
49
closed-ended questions
Survey questions in which the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. These are popular in survey research because they provide a greater uniformity of responses and are more easily processed than open-ended questions.
49
contingency question
A survey question intended for only some respondents, determined by their responses to some other question. For example, all respondents might be asked whether they belong to the Cosa Nostra, and only those who said “yes” would be asked how often they go to company meetings and picnics. The latter would be a contingency question.
49
naturalism
An approach to field research based on the assumption that an objective social reality exists and can be observed and reported accurately.
49
secondary analysis
A form of research in which the data collected and processed by one researcher are reanalyzed— often for a different purpose—by another. This is especially appropriate in the case of survey data. Data archives are repositories or libraries for the storage and distribution of data for secondary analysis.
49
bias
That quality of a measurement device that tends to result in a misrepresentation, in a particular direction, of what is being measured.
49
reactivity
The problem that the subjects of social research may react to the fact of being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have been normally.
50
ethnomethodology
An approach to the study of social life that focuses on the discovery of implicit—usually unspoken— assumptions and agreements; this method often involves the intentional breaking of agreements as a way of revealing their existence.
50
interview
A data-collection encounter in which one person (an interviewer) asks questions of another (a respondent). Interviews may be conducted face-to-face or by telephone.
50
probe
A technique employed in interviewing to solicit a more complete answer to a question. It is a nondirective phrase or question used to encourage a respondent to elaborate on an answer. Examples include “Anything more?” and “How is that?”
50
institutional ethnography
A research technique in which the personal experiences of individuals are used to reveal power relationships and other characteristics of the institutions within which they operate.
50
focus group
A group of subjects interviewed together, prompting a discussion. The technique is frequently used by market researchers, who ask a group of consumers to evaluate a product or discuss a type of commodity, for example.
50
grounded theory
An inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts to generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding observations. This differs greatly from hypothesis testing, in which theory is used to generate hypoth- eses to be tested through observations.
50
ethnography
A report on social life that focuses on detailed and accurate description rather than explanation.
50
extended case method
A technique developed by Michael Burawoy in which case study observations are used to discover flaws in, and to then improve, existing social theories.
50
case study
The in-depth examination of a single instance of some social phenomenon, such as a village, a family, or a juvenile gang.
50
emancipatory research
Research conducted for the pur- pose of benefiting disadvantaged groups.
51
qualitative interview
Contrasted with survey interviewing, the qualitative interview is based on a set of topics to be discussed in depth rather than the use of standardized questions.
51
participatory action research (PAR)
An approach to social research in which the people being studied are given con- trol over the purpose and procedures of the research; intended as a counter to the implicit view that researchers are superior to those they study.
51
rapport
An open and trusting relationship; especially impor- tant in qualitative research between researchers and the people they’re observing.
52
unobtrusive research
Methods of studying social behavior without affecting it. This includes content analysis, analysis of existing statistics, and comparative and historical research.
52
content analysis
The study of recorded human communications, such as books, websites, paintings, and laws.
53
coding
The process whereby raw data are transformed into standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis.
53
latent content
In connection with content analysis, the underlying meaning of communications, as distinguished from their manifest content.
53
program evaluation/outcome assessment
The determination of whether a social intervention is producing the intended result.
53
manifest content
In connection with content analysis, the concrete terms contained in a communication, as distinguished from latent content.
53
evaluation research
Research undertaken for the purpose of determining the impact of some social intervention, such as a program aimed at solving a social problem.
54
comparative and historical research
The examination of societies (or other social units) over time and in comparison with one another.
54
time-series design
A research design that involves measurements made over some period, such as the study of traffic-accident rates before and after lowering the speed limit.
54
quasi experiments
Nonrigorous inquiries somewhat resem- bling controlled experiments but lacking key elements such as pre- and posttesting and/or control groups
55
nonequivalent control group
A control group that is similar to the experimental group but is not created by the random assignment of subjects. This sort of control group does differ significantly from the experimental group in terms of the dependent variable or variables related to it.
56
multiple time-series designs
The use of more than one set of data that were collected over time, as in accident rates over time in several states or cities, so that comparisons can be made.
56
variable-oriented analysis
An analysis that describes and/ or explains a particular variable.
56
social indicators
Measurements that reflect the quality or nature of social life, such as crime rates, infant mortality rates, number of physicians per 100,000 population, and so forth. Social indicators are often monitored to determine the nature of social change in a society.
56
qualitative analysis
The nonnumerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discover-
ing underlying meanings and patterns of relationships. This approach is most typical of field research and historical research.
56
cross-case analysis
An analysis that involves an examination of more than one case, either a variable-oriented or case-oriented analysis.
57
case-oriented analysis
An analysis that aims to understand a particular case or several cases by looking closely at the details of each.
58
Grounded Theory Method (GTM)
An inductive approach to research introduced by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in which theories are generated solely from an examination of data rather than being derived deductively.
58
constant comparative method
A component of the Grounded Theory Method in which observations are compared with one another and with the evolving inductive theory.
58
semiotics
The study of signs and the meanings associated with them. This is commonly associated with content analysis.
58
conversation analysis (CA)
A meticulous analysis of the details of conversation, based on a complete transcript that includes pauses, “hems,” and also “haws"
59
axial coding
A reanalysis of the results of open coding in Grounded Theory Method, aimed at identifying the important, general concepts.
59
open coding
The initial classification and labeling of concepts in qualitative data analysis. In open coding, the codes are suggested by the researchers’ examination and questioning of the data.
60
selective coding
In Grounded Theory Method, this analysis builds on the results of open coding and axial coding to identify the central concept that organizes the other concepts that have been identified in a body of textual materials.
60
memoing
Writing memos that become part of the data for analysis in qualitative research such as grounded theory. Memos can describe and define concepts, deal with methodological issues, or offer initial theoretical formulations.
60
concept mapping
The graphical display of concepts and their interrelations, useful in the formulation of theory.
61
median
An average representing the value of the “middle” case in a rank-ordered set of observations. If the ages of five men are 16, 17, 20, 54, and 88, the median would be 20. (The mean would be 39.)
61
quantitative analysis
The numerical representation
and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect.
61
mode
An average representing the most frequently observed value or attribute. If a sample contains 1,000 Protestants,
275 Catholics, and 33 Jews, “Protestant” is the modal category.
61
frequency distribution
A description of the number
of times the various attributes of a variable are observed in a sample. The report that 53 percent of a sample were men and 47 percent were women would be a simple example of a frequency distribution.
61
codebook
The document used in data processing and analysis that tells the location of different data items in a data file. Typically, the codebook identifies the locations of data items and the meaning of the codes used to represent different attributes of variables.
61
univariate analysis
The analysis of a single variable,
for purposes of description. Frequency distributions, averages, and measures of dispersion are examples of univariate analysis, as distinguished from bivariate and multivariate analysis.
61
dispersion
The distribution of values around some central value, such as an average. The range is a simple example
of a measure of dispersion. Thus, we may report that the mean age of a group is 37.9, and the range is from 12 to 89.
61
mean
An average computed by summing the values of several observations and dividing by the number of observations. If you now have a grade point average of 4.0 based on 10 courses, and you get an F in this course, your new grade point (mean) average will be 3.6.
61
average
An ambiguous term generally suggesting typical or normal—a central tendency. The mean, median, and mode are specific examples of mathematical averages.
62
standard deviation
A measure of dispersion around the mean, calculated so that approximately 68 percent of the cases will lie within plus or minus one standard deviation from the mean, 95 percent will lie within plus or minus two standard deviations, and 99.9 percent will lie within three standard devia- tions. Thus, for example, if the mean age in a group is 30 and the standard deviation is 10, then 68 percent have ages between 20 and 40. The smaller the standard deviation, the more tightly the values are clustered around the mean; if the standard deviation is high, the values are widely spread out.
62
continuous variable
A variable whose attributes form
a steady progression, such as age or income. Thus, the ages
of a group of people might include 21, 22, 23, 24, and so forth and could even be broken down into fractions of years.
63
discrete variable
A variable whose attributes are separate from one another, or discontinuous, as in the case of gender or religious affiliation. In other words, there is no progression from male to female in the case of gender.
63
bivariate analysis
The analysis of two variables simultaneously, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them. The construction of a simple percentage table or the computation of a simple correlation coefficient are examples of bivariate analyses.
63
contingency table
A format for presenting the relationships among variables as percentage distributions; typically used to reveal the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
64
search engine
A computer program designed to locate where specified terms appear on websites throughout the World Wide Web.
64
multivariate analysis
The analysis of the simultaneous relationships among several variables. Examining simultaneously the effects of age, gender, and social class on religiosity would be an example of multivariate analysis.
64
research monograph
A book-length research report, either published or unpublished. This is distinguished from a textbook, a book of essays, a novel, and so forth.
64
abstract
A summary of a research article. The abstract usually begins the article and states the purpose of the research, the methods used, and the major findings.
64
plagiarism
Presenting someone else’s words or thoughts as though they were your own, constituting intellectual theft.
