INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY Flashcards
Defined as the teaching and learning of science
in the context of human experience
SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-SOCIETY
SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-SOCIETY
Called the ———– in science education’
‘megatrend
‘paradigm shift for the field of science
education’
SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-SOCIETY
Central goal for Science education
SCIENCE-TECHNOLOGY-SOCIETY
involves a
series of steps that
are used to
investigate a natural
occurrence.
Scientific
Method
6 STEPS BASED ON SCIENTIFIC METHODS OR TO SOLVE A PROBLEM
ICFTAR
- Identify the Problem
- Collect Information/Research
- Form a Hypothesis
- Test Your Hypothesis – “Experiment”
- Accept or Reject Your Hypothesis – “Analysis”
- Report Your Results – “Conclusion”
State the problem to be solved or the question to be answered.
Identify the Problem
Obtain facts and ideas from books, journals, internet, etc. that provide insight
regarding your problem/question. Cite these resources.
Collect Information/Research
Based on the information/research you collect, propose a solution or “best guess”
that will help guide your experimentation and attempt to answer the proposed
problem/question.
Form a Hypothesis
Describe, design, and conduct an experiment that will give you information or
data that supports (or not) your hypothesis.
Test Your Hypothesis – “Experiment”
Determine whether your data/results from the experiment supports (or not) your
hypothesis; if not, it may be necessary to review your information/research and
revise your hypothesis.
Accept or Reject Your Hypothesis – “Analysis”
Formulate a conclusion that answers the original question from step one and
share the results with the scientific community (or the community at large).
Report Your Results – “Conclusion”
data that are descriptions of qualities such as shape, color, taste,
feel, etc…
acquired by using your senses
Observations
2 TYPES OF Observations
Objective observation
Subjective observation
an observation based on opinion
SUBJECTIVE
an observation based on fact
Objective
a piece of information that can be strictly defined and proved true.
fact
a statement that expresses a belief, value, or feeling
opinion
Which type of observations should be used in science?
Objective observations should be used in science
because they are based on facts and the basis of
science is to identify the facts!
an explanation that tries to make sense of your observations
influenced by your experiences/prior knowledge
these explanations may not be true
Inference
Example
Observation:
John was breathing heavily as he walked into the classroom.
Possible Inferences:
He ran to class because he was going to be late
He just played basketball in gym
a working explanation or trial answer to a problem
an “educated guess”
Hypothesis
can be written in the form of an “If…, then…, because…” statement
is not necessarily proven correct just because data/results from one
experiment supports it
Hypothesis
when repeatedly supported by the same results 🡪 theories 🡪 laws
Hypothesis
factual information
data
types of data
Quanti and quali
data consisting of numbers
quanti
data consisting of verbal descriptions or information gathered using
scales without numbers
quali
experimental tests done more than once
necessary to provide more accurate results; data is averaged together
lessens the impact of a chance error on the experimental results
Repeated Trials
things that can be assigned or take on different values
in an experiment
any factor that can change
variables
types of variables
Independent
- Dependent
variables that may change as a result of the independent variable
the factor you measure to gather results
usually expressed after the word “then” in the hypothesis
could be thought of as the “effect” in a cause and effect relationship
Dependent
variables that are purposely changed or manipulated in an experiment
the factor that you wish to test
usually expressed after the word “if” in the hypothesis
could be thought of as the “cause” in a cause and effect relationship
Independent
a group of subjects in an experiment that are not given any
special treatment
something that is not manipulated
Control or Control Group
same as the experimental group in every possible way,
except for the factor being tested
a neutral point of reference for comparison – it allows you to
see what changing a variable does by comparing it to not
changing anything.
Control or Control Group
- An explanation that ties together many hypotheses and observations.
- Supported by repeated trials.
- May help with further predictions.
- Tells why it happens.
scientific theory
- A summary of many experimental results and observations.
- Tells how things work
- Only tells what happens, it does not explain why.
scientific law
are those living entities that have the ability or capacity to reproduce and can give rise to their new generation of offspring through different modes of reproduction (sexual and asexual).**
biological species
Adapted for walking on two legs, with a pelvis and leg structure similar to modern humans. Small brains averaging 430-480 cc, larger than chimpanzees but significantly smaller than modern humans. Mixed traits, including ape-like jaws and teeth, and human-like limb proportions.
early Homins/Australopithecus
Characteristics: Known as “handy man,” Homo habilis had a smaller brain (510-600 cc) and larger molars than modern humans, indicating a diet that included tough plant materials. They exhibited some tool-making abilities, using Oldowan tools.
Homo Habilis
Characteristics: Known as “Upright man,” they had a larger brain (about 900-1,100 cc), modern body proportions, and were the first to use fire and complex tools. They had a flat face and prominent brow ridges.
Homo Erectus`
Characteristics: They displayed transitional anatomical features, such as a robust skull with prominent brow ridges and a wider nasal aperture. Their tool use included Acheulean bifacial tools and hafted weapons, suggesting complex hunting strategies and social behaviors. Evidence of butchering practices and possible funerary rituals indicates a developing culture.
Archaic Human / Homo heidelbergensis
Characteristics: They had distinct physical traits, including a long, low skull, prominent brow ridges, and a broad nose, adaptations for cold climates. Neanderthals were skilled hunters and gatherers, often living in caves and showing social behaviors like caring for the sick and burying their dead.
Homo Neanderthalensis
Characteristics: Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have a high forehead, rounded skull, and smaller teeth compared to earlier species. They possess advanced cognitive abilities and complex language.
Homo Sapiens
Characteristics: This subspecies of Homo sapiens includes anatomically modern humans with sophisticated cultural practices, art, and technology.
Homo Sapiens Sapiens
6 Human Capabilities
CALMAT
C - Cultural learning
A - Abstract thinking
L - Language
M - Metacognition
A - Advanced problem-solving
T - Tool use
An organized group working together or meeting because of common interests, beliefs, or profession.
SOCIETY
“Web of social relations which is always changing.”
R.M. MacIver (1937)
“Society—may be regarded as the most general term referring to the whole complex of relations of man to his fellows.”
Talcott Parsons (1934)
is the meaning, notion, or connotation placed on an object or event by society, adopted by that society with respect to how they view or deal with it.
Social Construct
3 Components of Social System
SIN
Social Roles and Statuses
Institution
Norms and Values
Under the social class system of Institution
Family
Education
Government
Economy
Under the social class system of Social Roles and Statuses
Professions and Jobs
Social Classes
Under the social class system of Norms and Values
Culture
Belief Systems
Practices
3 Integrated existence
biological
psychological
social
usually proceeds by producing false controversies with legitimate science,
science denialism
Science is defined by its falsifiability, meaning a theory must be testable and refutable. If a theory cannot be proven wrong through evidence, it is not scientific.
Karl Popper’s Criterion
Science progresses through “normal science,” where scientists solve puzzles within existing theories rather than constantly testing them. Pseudoscience, according to Kuhn, lacks this puzzle-solving nature and often does not conform to scientific norms.
Thomas Kuhn’s View
Scientific research programs must show progress by making surprising predictions and expanding empirical content. A research program that only adjusts to fit existing facts without new, predictive power is deemed pseudoscientific.
Imre Lakatos’s Approach
Pseudoscience is identified by a lack of progress and a tendency to ignore conflicting evidence. It also involves selective confirmation and avoids meaningful comparison with other theories.
Paul Thagard’s Criteria
A scientific theory should be testworthy and encapsulate the explanatory successes of its rivals, with clear, testable implications.
Daniel Rothbart’s Criterion
A discipline is pseudoscientific if it cannot be integrated into the broader network of established sciences, suggesting a lack of methodological and theoretical coherence.
George Reisch’s Perspective
Science is guided by principles such as universalism (impartial evaluation of truth claims), communism (shared knowledge), disinterestedness (absence of personal bias), and organized skepticism (critical scrutiny)
Robert K. Merton’s Sociology of Science:**
Multiple criteria are often used to identify pseudoscience. These include:
Here are the main titles only from the text you provided:
- Belief in Authority
- Unrepeatable Experiments
- Handpicked Examples
- Unwillingness to Test
- Disregard of Refuting Information
- Built-in Subterfuge
- Explanations Abandoned Without Replacement
approach to identify pseudoscience
It is contended that some person or persons have a special ability to determine what is true or false. Others have to accept their judgments.
Belief in authority
approach to identify pseudoscience
Reliance is put on experiments that cannot be repeated by others with the same outcome.
Unrepeatable experiments
approach to identify pseudoscience
Handpicked examples are used although they are not representative of the general category that the investigation refers to.
Handpicked examples
approach to identify pseudoscience
A theory is not tested although it is possible to test it.
Unwillingness to test:
approach to identify pseudoscience
Observations or experiments that conflict with a theory are neglected.
Disregard of refuting information:
approach to identify pseudoscience
The testing of a theory is so arranged that the theory can only be confirmed, never disconfirmed, by the outcome.
Built-in subterfuge
approach to identify pseudoscience
Tenable explanations are given up without being replaced, so that the new theory leaves much more unexplained than the previous one.
Explanations are abandoned without replacement.
A philosophical method that casts doubt on claims usually considered trivially true, such as the existence of the external world.
Scepticism (Skepticism)
Often called scepticism; this is the term most commonly used by organisations devoted to the disclosure of pseudoscience.
Criticism of pseudoscience
Proceeds by casting doubt on claims usually taken to be trivially true, such as the existence of the external world.
Philosophical method
three distinct usages of skepticism
Philosophical method
Criticism of pseudoscience
Opposition to scientific consensus
Often called scepticism; this is the term most commonly used by organisations devoted to the disclosure of pseudoscience.
Criticism of pseudoscience:
Sometimes called scepticism, e.g., climate science deniers often call themselves “climate sceptics”.
Opposition to scientific consensus
Unwillingness to accept strongly supported factual statements is a traditional criterion of pseudoscience.
Resistance to facts
Can refer to unwillingness to accept well-supported factual claims whether or not that support originates in science.
Fact resistance
these are theories according to which there exists some type of secret collusion for any type of purpose.
Conspiracy theories
the term mostly refers to implausible such theories, used to explain social facts that have other, considerably more plausible explanations.
Conspiracy theories
they are often associated with a type of circular reasoning that allows evidence against the conspiracy to be interpreted as evidence for it.
Conspiracy theories
term to describe a type of falsehood that does not amount to lying
bullshit
is denial of the common assumption that there is intersubjective truth in scientific matters, which scientists can and should try to approach.
Epistemic relativism
According to Merton, science is characterized by an ——, i.e., spirit, that can be summarized as four sets of institutional imperatives.
“ethos”
four sets of institutional imperatives.
universalism
communism
disinterestedness
organized scepticism
The first imperative asserts that whatever their origins, truth claims should be subjected to preestablished, impersonal criteria.
Universalism
acceptance or rejection of claims should not depend on the personal or social qualities of their protagonists.
Universalism
states that the substantive findings of science are the products of social collaboration and therefore belong to the community, rather than being owned by individuals or groups.
Communism
imposes a pattern of institutional control that is intended to curb the effects of personal or ideological motives that individual scientists may have.
disinterestedness
implies that science allows detached scrutiny of beliefs that are dearly held by other institutions. This is what sometimes brings science into conflicts with religions and ideologies.
Organized scepticism
is a much weaker criterion than practical falsifiability
Logical falsifiability
