Introduction to Research and Scientific Methods

Question 1

Define research

Answer 1

Research is a systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.

Object of Research:
To extend knowledge of the physical, biological or social world beyond what is already known.

Question 2

Describe the scientific method

Answer 2

• Research uses a systematic process called: Scientific Method (Hypothetico-Deductive Method)
• Formulating hypotheses -> Testing hypotheses
• Steps:
  Make observations -> think of interesting questions -> formulate hypotheses -> develop testable predictions -> gather data to test predictions -> develop general theories

Question 3

Outline the stages in the research process

Answer 3

1. Formulating a research question
2. Conceptualizing a research design
3. Conducting an instrument for data collection
4. Selecting a sample
5. Writing a research proposal
6. Collecting data
7. Processing and displaying data
8. Writing a research report

Question 4

Formulating a research question

Answer 4

• First step in the research process

- Main function: to decide what to find out about

Question 5

Conceptualising a research design

Answer 5

• Main function: to decide, describe, justify and explain how to go about finding answers to the research questions

- Sets out the specific details of the inquiry: 
>> Study design 
>> Logistical arrangements 
>> Measurement procedures 
>> Sampling strategy 
>> Data analysis approach 
>> Time-frame 

• The strength of what is found largely rests on how it was found
  » Faulty design results in misleading findings
  » Developing appropriate research design is crucial in enabling investigator to arrive at valid findings

Question 6

Conducting an instrument for data collection

Answer 6

• Research instrument: a tool designed to collect information for the study
  » E.g. analytical assay, questionnaire
• If there are pre-existing research instruments, an appropriate one may be selected for use
• If there are no pre-existing research instruments, need to develop one for the study
  » E.g. Validation / Pre-testing of newly developed instrument

Question 7

Selecting a sample

Answer 7

• Most research is based on the use of a sample to represent a population (must accurately represent what is going on in the population of interest)
• Considerations when selecting a sample:
  » Can be studied at an acceptable cost in time and money
  » Large enough to control random error
  » Representative enough to allow generalising study findings to populations of interest

Question 8

Writing a research proposal

Answer 8

• Main function: to detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to the research question
  » What the investigator is proposing to do
  » How the investigator plans to proceed
  » Why the investigator selected the proposed strategy

Question 9

Collecting data

Answer 9

• Gather the information required to draw inferences and conclusions for the study
• Primary data
  » Data collected by an investigator specifically for the purpose of answering his/her research question.

-Secondary data
» Existing data collected for other purposes (by someone else other than the user), which an investigator (user) employs to answer his/her research question.

Question 10

Processing and displaying data

Answer 10

• Data analysis approach and data presentation format depend on the type of information collected:
  » Quantitative data : Statistical analysis, Graphical and tabular presentation
  » Qualitative data: Thematic content analysis, Presentation of representative verbatim quotes

Question 11

Writing a research report

Answer 11

1. Structure of a research report / manuscript: 
o	Title 
o	Abstract 
o	Introduction
o	Methods 
o	Results 
o	Discussion
o	Conclusion 
o	Acknowledgement 
o	References 
o	Appendices (optional)

2. Structure of an abstract:
o	Introduction 
o	Methods 
o	Results 
o	Conclusion

Question 12

Define internal and external validity

Answer 12

• Validity: the degree to which the observed findings lead to the correct inferences about phenomena taking place in the study sample (i.e. internal validity) and in the universe (i.e. external validity).
• External validity: also known as generalisability (i.e. the degree to which the conclusions drawn from the study can be appropriately applied to people and events outside the study). | Research question -design-> study plan
• Internal validity: i.e. the degree to which the investigator draws the correct conclusions about what actually happened in the study. | Study plan - implement-> actual study

Question 13

List and explain threats to internal and external validity.

Answer 13

Two main kinds of error that threaten the validity of the study:
1. Random error (i.e. a wrong result due to chance variability)
» Affects precision
2. Systematic error (i.e. a wrong result due to bias)

• Both random and systematic error can occur at the design and implement process stages and affect internal and external validity.

Question 14

Recognise the important values for the responsible conduct of research.

Answer 14

• Honesty
• Accuracy
• Efficiency
• Objectivity