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Psychology ib HL > Introduction to Research > Flashcards

Introduction to Research Flashcards

First Mid-Term Exam 2024

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1
Q

TYPES OF EVIDENCE

What is the difference between anecdotal evidence and empirical evidence?

Give the definition and characteristics for both.

A

Anecdotal evidence refers to evidence based on personal experience. This evidence is usually subjective, tends to confirm your previous ideas and is incomplete. On the other hand empircal evidence refers to evidence that is based on experimentation, has a skeptical approach, can be replicated and is objective.

For a theory you need EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE.

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2
Q

THEORIES

What is the definition of a theory?

A

It is the explanation of a behaviour that has been repeatedly tested and verified using the scientific method and is based on empirical evidence.

Uses empirical evidence.

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3
Q

THEORIES

What are the requirements of a good theory?

Name and explain all 5 requirements.

A

A good theory must:
1. Be able to be tested with the objective of being proved wrong. (Retaining null hypothesis.)
2. Have more than one well-defined constructs (variables that can be measured) such as memory, aggression, stress, IQ, etc.
3. Be able to be tested ethically.
4. Be able to be tested under natural conditions and in a not controlled setting.
5. Can be evaluated using T.E.A.C.U.P.

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4
Q

TEACUP

What does the acronym T.E.A.C.U.P. stand for?

Explain what each letter stands for and means.

A

T: Testing: Can be accurately tested using experimental methods.
E: Empricial evidence: Can be replicated, sample size is of an appropiate size (the bigger the better), and causality (dependent variable is caused by independent variable) can be shown.
A: Application: Can be applied to many different situations.
C: Constructs: Has multiple reliable and measurable well-defined constructs.
U: Unbiased: Is unbiased in regards with culture, and gender.
P: Prediction: Can reliably predict how individuals will behave in certain situations.

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5
Q

VARIABLES

What is the definition of operationalisation?

Operationalisation is a noun.

A

The process of operationalizing variables. Which is defining variables in a way that you can accurately measure them.

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6
Q

VARIABLES

What are the two types of variables and what do each of them mean?

Name and define.

A

Independent variable: Variable that is being controlled or changed.
Dependent variable: Variable that changes and is effected due to independent variable.

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7
Q

VARIABLES

IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AND DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE: The lower an
athlete´s self esteem is, the lower their perfomance is.

A

Independent variable: Level of self- esteem.
Dependent variable: Level of athletic performance.

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8
Q

VARIABLES

IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AND DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE: Students memorizing words underwater will recall a higher mean number of words than students memorizing words on land.

A

Independent variable: Where you memorize words. (Underwater or not)
Dependent variable: Mean number of words that can be recalled.

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9
Q

VARIABLES

IDENTIFY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AND DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE: Students who learn material from a visual presentation will get better grades on a test then those who didn´t.

A

Independent variable: Visuality of the material being learnt.
Dependent variable: Mean grades on a test.

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10
Q

VARIABLES

OPERATIONALIZE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE: Drinking an energy drink before a race will make runners run faster.

This is subjective.

A

Independent variable: Runner drinking 500ml of an energy drink 30 minutes before a 50m race V.S. runner 2 not drinking anything before a 50m race.
Dependent variable: Mean times it takes for them to finish the race.

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11
Q

HYPOTHESIS

What is the difference between a null hypothesis (H0) and an alternative hypotheis (H1)?

A

A null hypothesis states that the independent variable will not affect the dependent variable. In other words, it predicts there will be no relationship between independent and dependent variables. Meanwhile an alternative hypothesis is a hypothesis that predicts that the independent variable will affect the dependent variable. In other words, it predicts that there will be a relationship between independent and dependent variables.

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12
Q

HYPOTHESIS

What is a one-tailed hypothesis and what is the difference from a two-tailed hypothesis?

A

A one-tailed hypothesis is one in which the researchers can predict in which direction the dependent variable will go. This usually is when they are repeating a previously done study. Meanwhile in a two-tailed hypothesis the dependent variable is unpredictable and unknown to the researchers.

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13
Q

EXPERIMENTS

Name and explain the two different experiment designs.

A
  1. Independent measures design: Participants are separated into groups (experimental group and control group) and only experience their one assigned condition.
  2. Repeated measures design: Participants experience all conditions regardless of whether they are separated in groups or not.
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14
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the advantages of a repeated measures design?

A
  1. Fewer participants are needed.
  2. Less chance of participant variables affecting the study.
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15
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the advantages of an independent measures design?

A
  1. No order effects.
  2. Less chance of demand characteristics affecting the experiment.
  3. Less time needed.
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16
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the disadvantages of an independent measures design?

A
  1. Participant variables.
  2. More participants are needed.
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17
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the disadvantages of a repeated measures design?

A
  1. Order effects.
  2. Demand characteristics could affect the experiment.
  3. More time is needed.
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18
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are order effects and how can you overcome them?

A

Order effects are limitations in repeated measures design experiments. It refers to the influence of the order in which the conditions of I.V. have been performed on the participants. For example practice effect (participants do better on the second condition) and boredom effect (participants do worse on the second condition) on the second condition. In order to overcome this, researchers can use counterbalancing.

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19
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What is counterbalancing?

A

Changing the order of conditions in different groups. This eliminates order effects.

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20
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are some problems in experiments?

A
  1. Demand characteristics.
  2. Order effects.
  3. Extraneous variables.
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21
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are demand characteristics and what are the two types?

A

Cues in an experiment that can cause participants to interpret the aim of the experiment, therefore causing a change in their behavior. Either consciously or subconsciously.
- Screw-you effect: Changes in participants behavior in order to not comply with what the researchers want and are expecting.
- Expectancy effect: Changes in participants behavior in order to try to comply with what the researchers want and are expecting.

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22
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are extraneous variables and what are the three types?

A

Extraneous variables are any variables that you are not investigating but that can potentially affect the dependent variable in your study.
- Participant variables: Participant variables are any characteristics or aspects of a participant’s background that could affect study results, even though it’s not the focus of an experiment. Examples: Educational background, culture, mental diseases, gender, age, sex, mood, etc.
- Experimenter variables: Any type of characteristic the experimenter may have that could influence how the participants behave and therefore potentially affect the results of a study. Examples: Tone in which the experimenter is speaking, gender, mannerisms, appearance, etc.
- Characteristics or factors in the environment that could potentially affect the results of the study. Examples: Lighting, temperature, background noise, etc.

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23
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What is standardization and what is it used for?

A

Making the experience as similar as possible for all participants. This reduces the extraneous variables which improves the internal validity, and allows to infer cause and effect.

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24
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What is random allocation and what is it used for?

A

Randomly deciding which condition of the I.V. participants receive. This helps reduce participant variables, which helps infer cause and effect and therefore improves internal validity.

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25
Q

SAMPLING

What is sampling?

A

Process of choosing which members of a population will take part in a study. There are two main aims when doing this:
- Representativeness
- Generalizability

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26
Q

SAMPLING

What is generalizability?

A

Sample allows population to be generalized. Meaning how broadly applicable the findings of a study are.

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27
Q

SAMPLING

What is representativeness?

A

Represents population statistically. A sample should represent the target population, meaning that if the target population includes both men and women, the sample should not only be composed of male participants.

Representativeness leads to generalizability.

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28
Q

SAMPLING

What is sampling bias?

A

Sampling bias occurs when a sample does not accurately represent the population being studied. Meaning that certain groups are over-represented or under-represented in a sample. Therefore it has low representativeness and the findings have low generalizability.

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29
Q

SAMPLING

Name the 6 sampling techniques.

A
  1. Snowball sampling.
  2. Systematic random sampling.
  3. Volunteer sampling.
  4. Stratified sampling.
  5. Purposive sampling.
  6. Convenience / opportunity sampling.
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30
Q

SAMPLING

What is opportunity / convenience sampling?

A

Participants are selected based on naturally occurring groups because it is most convenient for the researcher.

Example: A psychology teacher using his psychology students.

31
Q

SAMPLING

What is stratified sampling?

A

The sample matches the makeup of the population. Participants from various subgroups of the population are randomly selected.

X amount of people from ages 10-20, Y amount of people from ages 20-30,

32
Q

SAMPLING

What is purposive sampling?

A

A method of choosing participants on the basis of their meeting a certain criteria.

Choosing people with a mental disorder for a study on that disorder.

33
Q

SAMPLING

What is snowball sampling?

A

Participants recruit other participants for a study.

34
Q

SAMPLING

What is volunteer / self-selected sampling?

A

Participants volunteer to take part in a study.

34
Q

SAMPLING

What is systematic random sampling?

A

Randomly selecting participants for a study in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

For example pulling names out of a hat.

35
Q

SAMPLING

What are the limitations of opportunity sampling?

A
  • May be subject to sampling bias.
  • May not be generalizable to target population.
35
Q

SAMPLING

What are the limitations of random sampling?

A

Key members of the population may be missed, hence not representative.

36
Q

SAMPLING

What are the limitations of self-selected sampling?

A

Results derived from this sample may have sampling bias by the participants.

37
Q

SAMPLING

What are the limitations of snowball sampling?

A
  • Anonymity can be difficult to maintain.
  • May not obtain a representative sample.
38
Q

SAMPLING

What are the limitations of stratified sampling?

A
  • Takes a long time to implement.
  • May suffer from researcher bias.
  • Lower external validity.
39
Q

SAMPLING

What are the limitations of purposive samples?

A

Purposive samples tend to over-represent whichever subgroups are more available. Meaning they can suffer from sampling bias.

40
Q

SAMPLING

What are the advantages of convenience sampling?

A

Convenient for researchers to administer.

41
Q

SAMPLING

What are the advantages of random sampling?

A
  • Relatively quick and easy to implement.
  • Will not suffer from researcher bias.
42
Q

SAMPLING

What are the advantages of self-selected sampling?

A

Convenient for researchers to administer.

43
Q

SAMPLING

What are the advantages of snowball sampling?

A

Can give researchers access to hidden populations.

44
Q

SAMPLING

What are the advantages to stratified sampling?

A

Should provide a representative sample as subgroups can be chosen to ensure certain key characteristics are represented in the sample.

45
Q

SAMPLING

What are the advantages of purposive sampling?

A
  • Used when the target population is hard to locate.
  • Allows for the selection of participants who are most relevant to the research question.
46
Q

ETHICS

What are the 6 ethical guidelines in research?

A
  1. Informed consent.
  2. Protection from undue stress or harm to participants.
  3. Deception.
  4. Debriefing.
  5. Right to withdrawal.
  6. Anonymity.
47
Q

ETHICS

What does informed consent mean?

A

Participants are told about the nature of the study, and the rights that they will have. If the participant is unable to give consent, a parent or guardian must do so.

48
Q

ETHICS

What does right to withdrawal mean?

A

A participant should have the right to withdraw themselves and the data recorded from the experiment at any point in time.

49
Q

ETHICS

What does anonymity in regards to ethics mean?

A

The identities of the participants must remain anonymous, and researchers must keep confidentiality.

50
Q

ETHICS

What does debriefing in regards to ethics mean?

A

After finishing an experiment, participants must be debriefed about the aim of the study, any deception that has been used should be revealed, explained and justified. The objective of this is to make sure that participants leave the study in the same mental and physical condition they came with.

51
Q

ETHICS

What does deception in regards to ethics mean?

A

Only a slight amount of deception is allowed, as long as it can be justified that it is crucial for the study and it is approved by an ethics board.
Right to withdrawal: A participant should have the right to withdraw themselves and the data recorded from the experiment at any point in time.

52
Q

ETHICS

What does protection from undue stress or harm in regards to ethics mean?

A

Participants should not be humiliated, coerced to share private information or put through unnecessary amounts of physical or mental harm or stress.

53
Q

VALIDITY

Name the three types of validity in research.

A
  1. External validity.
  2. Ecological validity. (Type of external validity.)
  3. Internal validity.
54
Q

VALIDITY

What is internal validity?

A

The extent to which you can infer a cause-and-effect relationship in a study and that cannot be explained by other factors.

55
Q

VALIDITY

What is external validity?

A

How far you can generalize the results of a study in relation to other settings, situations or individuals.

High generalizability = high external validity.

56
Q

VALIDITY

What is ecological validity?

A

Type of external validity. The applicability or relevance of experimental findings to everyday settings and not in a control environment. It refers to if WHAT the participants are DOING is REALISTIC and not whether where they do it.

57
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the four types of experiments?

A
  1. True experiments (lab)
  2. True experiments (field)
  3. Quasi experiments
  4. Natural experiments
58
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What is the definition and features of a true lab experiment?

A

Participants are randomly assigned (random allocation) to conditions and the I.V. is manipulated in a controlled setting (lab) with a standardized procedure.

59
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What is the definition and features of a quasi experiment?

A

Participants are not randomly assigned to conditions and the I.V. cannot be replicated as it is based on gender, age, nationality and culture.

60
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What is the definition and features of a natural experiment?

A

Type of quasi experiment in which the I.V. is a naturally occurring event.

61
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What is the definition and features of true field experiment?

A

Conditions are randomly assigned (random allocation) to participants and an I.V. is manipulated but the participants are unaware they are being studied and it takes place in a real life setting.

62
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the advantages of true lab experiments?

A
  • Higher internal validity.
  • Prevents extraneous variables.
  • Easier to infer cause and effect.
  • Easy to replicate.
63
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the advantages of a quasi experiment?

A
  • Higher external validity.
  • More range of I.V.s to investigate.
64
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the advantages of true field experiments?

A
  • Higher ecological validity.
  • Less chance of demand characteristics.
65
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the advantages of natural experiments?

A

High ecological validity.

66
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the limitations of natural experiments?

A
  • Extremely difficult to replicate.
  • Difficult to infer cause and effect.
  • Low internal validity.
67
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the limitations of true lab experiments?

A
  • More artificial results.
  • Low ecological validity.
  • Not as applicable in real life.
68
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the limitations of true field experiments?

A
  • Difficult to impose ethical considerations
  • Hard to replicate.
  • Difficult to prevent extraneous variables.
  • Lower internal validity.
  • Hard to infer cause and effect.
69
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are the limitations of quasi experiments?

A
  • Lower internal validity.
  • Difficult to infer cause and effect.
  • Difficult to prevent extraneous variables.
70
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are confederates?

A

Research actors.

71
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are single-blind experiments?

A

Participants do know which condition of the I.V. they are experiencing.

72
Q

EXPERIMENTS

What are double-blind experiments?

A

Neither the participants nor researchers know in which condition of the I.V. the participants are experiencing.

Psychology ib HL (1 decks)

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