Introduction to Psychology & Research Methods Flashcards
Define Psychology
The scientific study of behavior & mental process that values empirical evidence and critical thinking.
Define Critical Thinking
The process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information
What are Psychology’s four main goals?
Describe, explain, predict, and change behavior and mental processes
What is the difference between a Psychiatrist and a Psychologist?
A psychiatrist is a medical doctor, they have (M.D) degrees with a specialization in psychiatry and a licensed to prescribe medications and drugs. Counseling and Clinical psychologist have advanced degrees in human behavior and methods of therapy. (Ph.D. or Psy.D)
Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic Prospective
Focuses on unconscious processes and unresolved past conflicts
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Austrian physician Sigmund Freud believed that many psychological problems are caused by a conflict between “acceptable” behavior and “unacceptable” unconscious sexual or aggressive motives. Freud developed a form of psychotherapy, or “talk therapy,” called psychoanalysis
Behavioral Perspective
Emphasizes objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
B. F. Skinner is a behavioralist, convinced that we could (and should) use behavioral approaches to actually “shape” human behavior
John B. Watson (1913)
American psychologist in the 20th century who established the psychological field of behaviorism
William James (1842-1910)
William James, an American Scholar, was a leading force in the functionalist school of psychology, which stressed the adaptive and practical functions of human behavior
Sigmund Freud structural model of personality:
Freud divides the personality into three parts the id, the ego, and the superego.
Wihelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Acknowledged as the “father of psychology” established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Wilhelm Wundt focused on understanding the conscious experience through introspection
B. F. Skinner Behavioral Theory:
A behaviorist, he developed the theory of operant conditioning – the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again. which is predicated on three types of responses people exhibit to external stimuli.
Humanistic Perspective
Emphasizes free will, self-actualization,
and human nature as naturally positive
and growth-seeking
Positive Psychology
The scientific study of optimal human functioning, emphasizing positive emotions, positive traits,
and positive institutions
Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on thinking, perceiving, and information processing
Neuroscience / Biopsychology Perspective
Emphasizes genetics and other biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system
Evolutionary Perspective
Focuses on natural selection, adaptation,
and evolution of behavior and mental processes
Sociocultural Perspective
Emphasizes social interaction and cultural
determinants of behavior and mental processes
Ethnicities of doctorate recipients in psychology
American Indian 1%, Asian and Pacific Islander 4%, Hispanic (Latino) 6%, White (non-Hispanic) 85%
Biopsychosocial Model
The unifying theme of modern psychology that incorporates biological, psychological, and social
processes
Basic Research
Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge. Basic research meets the first three goals of psychology (description, explanation, and prediction)
Applied Research
Research designed to solve practical problems. Applied Research is generally conducted outside the laboratory. And it meets the fourth goal of psychology—to change existing real-world problems.
Meta-Analysis
Statistical procedure for combining and analyzing data from many studies
What are the six basic steps of the scientific method?
Step 1: Literature Review Step 2: Testable Hypothesis, Operational defined Step 3: Research Design Step 4: Statistical Analysis Step 5: Peer-Review Scientific Journal Step 6: Theory
Hypothesis
Specific, testable prediction about how one factor, or variable, is related to another
Operational Definition
The precise description of how the variables in
a study will be observed and measured (For example, drug abuse might be operationally defined as “the number of missed workdays due to excessive use of an addictive substance.”)
Theory
Interrelated set of concepts that explain a body of data
What are the two largest professional organizations of psychologists?
The American Psychological Society (APS)
The American Psychological Association (APA)
Informed Consent
Participant’s agreement to take part in a study after
being told what to expect
The APA has developed rigorous guidelines regulating research with human participants, including:
Informed Consent Voluntary Participation Restricted use of deception and debriefing Confidentiality Alternative Activities
Debriefing
Informing participants after the research about the purpose of the study, the nature of the anticipated results, and any deceptions used
Comparative Psychology
the study of the behavior of different species
Confidentiality Rights of Psychotherapy Clients
All personal information and therapy records must be kept confidential, with records being available only to authorized persons and with the client’s permission. However, the public’s right to safety ethically outweighs the client’s right to privacy. Therapists are legally required to break confidentiality if a client threatens violence to him or herself or to others. This breaking
of confidentiality also applies if a client is suspected of abusing a child or an elderly person, and in other limited situations.
What is the counselor’s primary obligation?
To protect client’s disclosure
What are the four main types of psychological research?
Experimental
Descriptive
Correlational
Biological
Experiment
Carefully controlled scientific procedure that involves the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect
An experiment has several key components:
Experimental versus control groups and independent versus dependent variables
Researchers must guard against two particular problems:
Experimenter bias and ethnocentrism
Experimenter Bias
Occurs when the researcher influences research results in the expected direction
Ethnocentrism
Believing that one’s culture is typical of all cultures; also, viewing one’s own ethnic group (or culture) as
central and “correct” and judging others according to this standard
Experimental Group
The group that receives treatment in an experiment
Control Group
The group that receives no treatment in an experiment
Independent Variable (IV)
Variable that is manipulated to determine its causal effect on the dependent variable
Dependent Variable (DV)
Variable that is measured; it is affected by (or dependent on) the independent variable
Double-Blind Study
Procedure in which both the researcher and the participants are unaware (blind) of who is in the experimental or control group
Placebo
An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control
technique, usually in drug research, or given by a medical practitioner to a patient
Sample bias
Occurs when research participants are not representative of the larger population
Random Assignment
Using chance methods to assign participants to
experimental or control conditions, thus minimizing the possibility of biases or preexisting differences in the groups
Participant Bias
Occurs when experimental conditions influence the participant’s behavior or mental processes
Misattribution of Arousal
Different emotions produce similar feelings
of arousal, which leads to mistaken inferences about these emotions and the source of arousal.
What are the three key methods of Descriptive Research?
Naturalistic Observation
Surveys
Case Studies
Descriptive Research
Research methods that observe and record behavior
and mental processes without producing causal explanations
Naturalistic Observation
Observation and recording behavior and mental processes in the participant’s natural state or habitat
Survey
A research technique that questions a large sample of people to assess their behaviors and attitudes
Case Study
In-depth study of a single research participant
Correlational Research
The researcher observes or measures (without directly manipulating) two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationships between them. Correlation does NOT imply causation
Correlation Coefficient
A number indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
What is the formula for calculating the correlation coefficient?
Correlation coefficients are calculated by a formula that produces a number ranging from +1.00 to -1.00. The number indicates the strength of the relationship. Both
+1.00 and -1.00 indicate the strongest possible relationship. As the number decreases and gets
closer to 0.00, the relationship weakens. Note that the sign (+ or - ) in front of the number indicates the direction of the correlation, positive (+) or negative ( - )
Key features of Correlations
A positive correlation (+) indicates that two variables move (or vary) in the same direction—they increase or decrease in a similar way. For example, when studying
increases, exam scores generally increase. Conversely, when studying decreases, exam scores decrease. Both are positive correlations. The factors vary in the same direction upward or downward.
A negative correlation occurs when two variables vary in opposite directions as one-factor increases, the other factor decreases. Have you noticed that the more hours you work (or party) outside of college, the lower your exam scores? This is an example of a negative correlation—working and partying vary in opposite directions to exam scores.
A zero correlation indicates no relationship between two variables. For example, there is no relation (zero correlation) between your birthday and your exam scores. And, despite popular belief, repeated scientific investigations of astrology have found no relationship
between personality and the position of the stars when you were born (a zero correlation).
What is a scatterplot?
Positive, negative, and zero correlations are sometimes shown on graphs (called scatterplots), with each dot
representing an individual participant’s score on the
two variables
A “Correlation Coefficient” is delineated by:
the letter “r,” and it would be expressed something like this, r + 62. The sign in front of the number
( + or - ) indicates the direction of the relationship, and the number (.62) indicates the strength. The closer the number is to 1.00, either positive or negative, the stronger the correlation between the variables. A correlation of +92 or - 92 would represent a high (or strong) correlation, whereas a correlation of + 15 or - 15 would indicate a low (or weak) correlation.
Sample Correlation Coefficient (r = + .62)
Biological Research
Scientific studies of the brain and other parts of the nervous system
Biological Research Method:
Brain Dissection Ablation/Lesions Observation/Case studies (EEG) Electrical Recordings (ESB) Electrical Stimulation of the brain (CT) Computed Tomography Scan (PET) Positron Emission Tomography Scan (MRI) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (TMS) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
List the 6 steps in the SQ4R Method:
Survey Question Read Recite Review Write
List of careers in the psychology field
Occupational examples include: Experimental Biopsychology Cognitive Developmental Clinical Counseling
Structuralism
Focused on consciousness and the structure of the mind using introspection
Functionalism
The emphasized function of mental processes in adapting to the environment and practical applications of psychology.
