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MCB 32 Introduction to Human Physiology > Introduction to Physiology (Chapter 1) > Flashcards

Introduction to Physiology (Chapter 1) Flashcards

1
Q

Neurons

A
  • Specialized cells that transmit information in the form of electrical signals
  • Typically possess branches that function to receive signals from or transmit signals to other cells
  • Examples include: neurons in the eyes that respond to light, neurons in the brain that process information, neurons that relay signals to muscle glands and other organs
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2
Q

Muscle Fibers

A
  • Specialized cells to contract, thereby generating mechanical force and movement
  • Found in the muscles of the arms, legs and other body parts whose movements are under voluntary control
  • Also found in the cardiac muscle of the heart and the smooth muscle of the blood vessels (structures with involuntary control)
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3
Q

Epithelial

A
  • Consists of a continuous sheet-like layer of cells in combination with a thin noncellular basement membrane
  • Different types include simple (one cell thick), stratified (several cells thick), squamous (short and fattened), cuboidal (square-shaped) and columnar (tall and oblong)
  • Epithelial cells join closely together to form a barrier that prevents material from one side of the epithelium from mixing with material from the other side
  • Epithelia are found wherever body fluids must be kept separate from the external environment
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4
Q

Lumen

A

Interior cavity of a hollow organ or vessel

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5
Q

Exocrine glands

A
  • Secretes products into a duct leading to the external environment
  • Examples include: sweat glands and salivary glands
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6
Q

Endocrine glands

A
  • Secretes hormones into the bloodstream

- Examples include: pituitary gland and adrenal gland

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7
Q

Hormones

A

Chemicals that communicate a message to cells of the body

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8
Q

Connective Tissue Cells

A
  • Most diverse type of cells
  • Refers to any structure whose primary function is to provide physical support for other structures, to anchor them in place, or to link them together
  • Is also used to describe cells that “connect” various parts of the body together by providing avenues of communication
  • Generally consists of widely scattered cells embedded in the extracellular matrix, which contains a dense meshwork of proteins and other large molecules
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9
Q

Tissue

A

A collection of cells (which tend to cluster together within the body) performing similar functions

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10
Q

What are the four basic types of cell groups?

A
  1. Neurons
  2. Muscle Cells
  3. Epithelial Cells
  4. Connective Tissue Cells
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11
Q

Organs

A
  • When 2 or more tissues combine to make up structures that perform particular functions
  • Examples include: Heart (which is composed of mostly muscle tissue, but also contains nervous tissue, epithelial tissue and connective tissue)
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12
Q

Organ Systems

A
  • A collection of organs that work together to perform certain functions
  • Examples include: Cardiovascular system, Gastrointestinal system
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13
Q

Physiology

A

The study of the functions of organisms

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14
Q

Function of Endocrine System

A

Provide communication between cells of the body through the release of hormones into the bloodstream

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15
Q

Function of Nervous System

A

Provide communication between cells of the body through electrical signals and the release of neurotransmitters into small gaps between certain cells

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16
Q

Function of Musculoskeletal System

A
  • Support the body
  • Allow voluntary movement of the body
  • Allow facial expressions
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17
Q

Function of Cardiovascular System

A

Transport molecules throughout the body in the bloodstream

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18
Q

Function of Respiratory System

A

Bring oxygen into the body and eliminate carbon dioxide from the body

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19
Q

Function of Urinary System

A

Filter the blood to regulate acidity, blood volume, and ion concentration eliminate wastes

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20
Q

Function of Gastrointestinal System

A

Break down food and absorb it into the body

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21
Q

Function of Reproductive System

A

To generate offspring

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22
Q

Function of Immune System

A

Defend the body against pathogens and abnormal cells

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23
Q

Function of the Integumentary System

A

Protects the body from the external environment

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24
Q

External Environment

A
  • Layer of epithelial tissues separates the external environment from the internal environment
  • Ex. When food enters the stomach, the particles are on the external environment because they are on the external side of the epithelial barrier
25
Q

Internal Environment (aka. extracellular fluid)

A
  • Most of the body’s cells are unable to exchange materials directly with the external environment because they are not in direct contact with it
  • Most cells are surrounded by a separate fluid that exchanges materials with the blood
  • Because that fluid is in immediate contact with the cells, they are referred to as the internal environment
  • Approximately 20% is found in the blood, and is called plasma
  • Approximately 80% is found outside the blood and is called the interstitial fluid (ISF)
26
Q

Exchange of Materials Between External and Internal Environments

A
  • Blood obtains oxygen, nutrients and other needed materials from the external environment and must release carbon dioxide and other unneeded materials (usually produced as a by product of cellular respiration by the cells) into the external environment
27
Q

Exchange in the Lungs

A
  • Oxygen enters the bloodstream from the air that is breathed in during inspiration
  • CO2 is expelled into the air through expiration
28
Q

Exchange in the Gastrointestinal Tract

A
  • Water, inorganic salts and nutrients obtained from digested food are transported into the lumen (absorption)
  • The stomach uses materials from the blood to produce acids and proteins that are then transported into the lumen (secretion)
  • Unabsorbed materials remain in the gastrointestinal tract and ultimately eliminated from the body as feces (excretion)
29
Q

Exchange in the Kidneys

A
  • Fluid from the bloodstream first enters tubules via filtration
  • In the tubules, materials are selectively transported back into the bloodstream (reabsorption)
  • Concurrently, unneeded materials are selectively transported from the bloodstream into the tubules by the secretion process, eventually being excreted as urine
30
Q

Water

A
  • The most abundant substance in the body

- Acts as a solvent for the great variety of solutes found in body fluids

31
Q

Body Fluid Compartments

A
  • Interior of the body is divided into separate compartments (which are filled with fluid) by barriers of different types, including epithelial tissues and cell membranes
  • They separate the contents of cells from their surroundings
  • Physically separated but are still able to exchange materials with each other because the barriers are semi-permeable, meaning they let certain molecules pass through more easily and exclude certain molecules from entering entirely
32
Q

Total Body Water (TBW)

A
  • The total volume of fluid enclosed within the outer epithelial layer
  • TBW accounts for approximately 60% of total body weight
  • TBW includes water present in fluid located inside cells, called intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF)
33
Q

Difference in Composition between ICF & ECF

A
  • ICF contains many proteins and is relatively rich in potassium
  • ECF contains few proteins and is relatively rich in sodium
34
Q

Plasma

A
  • Part of the extracellular fluid that is present in the blood
  • Specifically, it is the liquid, noncellular part of the blood
35
Q

Interstitial Fluid (ISF)

A
  • Portion of the extracellular fluid that is present outside of the blood and that bathes most of the cell
36
Q

Difference in Composition between ISF and Plasma

A
  • Very similar in composition because the walls of the capillaries are highly permeable to most solutes except proteins
  • Plasma is relatively rich in proteins, which are scarce in interstitial fluid
37
Q

Homeostasis

A
  • The maintenance of relatively constance conditions in the internal environment
  • Remaining constant means the composition, the temperature, and the volume of the extracellular fluid do not change significantly under normal conditions
38
Q

Regulated Variable

A
  • When a variable is not free to vary but is instead regulated to stay within relatively narrow limits
  • Ex. body temperature, plasma concentrations of potassium, sodium and calcium
  • They are kept constant by homeostatic regulatory mechanisms
39
Q

Negative Feedback Control in Homeostasis

A
  • Regulated variables are kept constant by homeostatic regulatory mechanisms – if a regulated variable increases, the system responds by making it decrease ; if a regulated variable decreases, the system responds by making it increase
  • Only make adjustments when they detect a difference between the actual value of the regulated variable and the normal desired value (“Set Point”)
40
Q

Set Point

A
  • The normal/desired value of a regulated variable
  • Set points cannot be held absolutely constant, as regulated variables fluctuate constantly, but the changes are minimized by negative feedback
41
Q

Operations of Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism

A
  • Detects regulated variables through sensors (often neurons) that are sensitive to the specific variable
  • These sensors relay signals (input) to an integrating centre (often a particular set of neural circuits in the brain or an endocrine gland), which then compares the regulated variable to the set point and orchestrates the appropriate response
  • The integrating centre than relays signals (output) to the cells, tissues, and organs to bring about the final response
42
Q

Integrating Center

A
  • A particular set of neural circuits in the brain or an endocrine gland that receives the relay input signals from the neurons/sensors that are sensitive to a specific regulated variable
43
Q

Effectors

A
  • The cells, tissues, or organs that receive the output from the integrating center and bring about the final response to maintain homeostasis
44
Q

Significance of Negative Feedback

A
  • Negative feedback is important because it triggers changes in the regulated variable only when appropriate
45
Q

Positive Feedback

A
  • The response of the system goes in the same direction as the change that sets it in motion
  • Ex. In the female reproduction system, a rise in the plasma estrogen concentration can trigger an increase in the secretion of LH and so on – this rise in LH triggers ovulation
  • Positive feedback is useful in certain physiological systems because it allows a variable to change rapidly in response to a stimulus
  • There is always a factor that acts to terminate the positive feedback loop either by removing the original stimulus or by limiting the system’s ability to respond to that stimulus
46
Q

Why is the prevalence of Diabetes increasing?

A
  • Aging of the population – more people are living longer, and people are prone to diabetes as they age
  • Lifestyles – many people live sedentary lives, which can lead to metabolic changes and obesity (key factors that lead to diabetes)
  • Diet – many diets include fats and carbohydrates, causing direct metabolic changes and higher chances of obesity
47
Q

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

A
  • “Insulin-dependent” & “juvenile-onset”
  • There is damage to the beta cells of the pancreas that keeps them from secreting enough insulin in the blood to regulate blood glucose
  • Becomes apparent at an early age
48
Q

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

A
  • “Non-insulin-dependent” & “Adult-onset”
  • Characterized by failure to respond to insulin when its levels are normal
  • Have normal beta cells in pancreas that secrete insulin at appropriate levels to regulate blood glucose BUT the target cells are incapable of responding to the insulin produced
49
Q

Two Major Consequences Resulted from Type 2 DM

A
  • The cells do not get the glucose they need for energy

- The glucose levels in the blood rise

50
Q

Gestational Diabetes

A
  • Subclass of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

- Occurs when hormones produced in high amounts during pregnancy induce insulin resistance

51
Q

Pre-diabetes

A
  • Blood glucose levels are elevated, but not as much as in full diabetes
  • Pre-diabetics have fasting blood glucose levels of 100-125mg/dL
52
Q

Diabetes Insipidus

A
  • Problem not with regulating blood glucose levels, but in regulating plasma volume
  • Shows similar symptoms to those with DM – excessive thirst and copious urination
53
Q

Diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus via Plasma Testing

A
  • To test for diabetes, fasting plasma glucose levels are measured and a glucose tolerance test is performed
  • Random measurements of plasma glucose may give the first indication of pre-diabetes or diabetes, but fasting plasma glucose levels and a glucose tolerance test would then confirm the diagnosis
54
Q

Glucose Levels via Plasma Testing

A
  • Normal Fasting Glucose Levels - 60-100mg/dL
  • Pre-diabetes Glucose Levels - 100-125mg/dL
  • Diabetes - Levels greater than 125mg/dL
55
Q

Diagnosing Diabetes mellitus via Oral Testing

A
  • Oral glucose testing requires fasting for 8 hours, followed by consumption of a solution containing 75 grams of glucose dissolved in water
  • Plasma glucose measurement is taken 2 hours after the person consumes the solution
56
Q

Glucose Levels via Oral Testing

A
  • Normal - Less than 139mg/dL
  • Pre-diabetic - Between 140-199mg/dL
  • Diabetic – Greater than 200 mg/dL
57
Q

Symptoms of Diabetes

A
  • Elevated blood glucose
  • Glucose in the urine (This pulls water out of the body with it, resulting in loss of body fluids and dehydration)
  • Fatigue, as the cells cannot utilize glucose normally
  • Fluctuations in blood glucose levels can lead to lethargy, and coma in extreme situations
  • May affect the eyes, the heart, kidneys, stomach, peripheral nerves, erectile dysfunction and promotes atherosclerosis
58
Q

Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus

A
  • Behavioural and lifestyle changes will need to be made to bring blood glucose back to normal levels
  • Individuals with type 1 DM typically have to administer insulin to control their blood glucose levels
  • Individuals with type 2 DM may have to do the same to decrease their blood glucose levels
  • As diabetes progresses, treatment must also progress as secondary problems arise from the diabetes, such as cardiovascular disease

MCB 32 Introduction to Human Physiology (2 decks)

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