Introduction to Pest Management

Question 1

What is the definition of integrated pest management?

Answer 1

Blend techniques so that economic damage is avoided and harmful side-effects are minimised
(Techniques include pesticides)

Question 2

What examples of pest management are there over history?

Answer 2

Chemicals used - 2,000BC
Culture Techniques - 1,500BC
Biological Control - 1,000AD
Host Plant Resistance - 1,000AD

Question 3

Why is it important to control pests?

Answer 3

Yield Loss
Disease Transmission
A Nuisance

Question 4

What important publications were made between 1935 and 1965?

Answer 4

1939 - First reference to biological and chemical control as 2 edges of a sword (Hoskins et al., 1939), both have far longer history though
1952 - First reports of problems associated with extensive DDT use and “integrated control” used for the first time in print
1962 - Silent Spring by Carson published

Question 5

What was the timeline of IPM in America?

Answer 5

1972 - formulated into government policy by president Nixon
1979 - President Carter set up an inter-agency coordinating committee for IPM implementation
The Huffaker Project was then established

Question 6

Why did the USA decide to take action against DDT?

Answer 6

Resistance to DDT becoming huge problem with pink bollworm
Excessive residues of DDT were found in mill
Cancellation hearings for DDT got a lot of publicity
Officially banned in the USA 1972
Substantial outbreaks of gypsy moths, pine beetles in forestry led to queries concerning efficacy of chemical control

Question 7

What areas of IPM were funded in the 1970-1980s?

Answer 7

Funding for new methods of chemical control
Expansion of field-scouting programmes (extension workers)
Training in universities of specialists in crop protection
Establishment of “Huffaker Project”

Question 8

What is the Huffaker Project?

Answer 8

Established under Nixon in 1970s
Funded research into IPM in alfalfa, citrus, cotton, soybean and fruit
Aim was 50% reduction in pesticide use in 5 years
Output was a series of books in 1980s and to the claim that IPM had been implemented on 50-60% of US crop usage
In 1993, president Clinton built on this and called for it’s implementation on 75% of US crop acreage by year 2000 (whether it has occurred is problematic)

Question 9

When do you know IPM exists?

Answer 9

Numerous definitions, all emphasise minimising economic damage and minimising environmental damage, for example:
“An adaptable range of pest control methods which is cost-effective whilst being environmentally benign and sustainable”

Question 10

What was the problem with the Clinton aspiration of 75%?

Answer 10

Definition of cost effective - was it cost effective or was it just that money is saved?
How can you define “environmentally benign”?
How do you define sustainable? For how long? With what degree of statistical significance?

Question 11

When did IPM become official policy in countries outside the US?

Answer 11

Indonesia - 1979
India and Malaysia - 1985
EU (including UK) - 1987

Question 12

What are the names of the UN research institutes involved in IPM?

Answer 12

IRRI - Philippines
CIMMYT - Mexico
ICRISAT - India
CIP - Peru
ICARDA - Syria

Question 13

What are UN Farmer Field Schools?

Answer 13

Developed in 1990s to empower farmers
Mostly due to failure of previous technology transfer models.
Idea is that farmers learn by doing, devise their own teaching materials, modify resources to local conditions
By start of 2000, now running in a number of African and Asian countries

Question 14

What did the EU vote to do in January of 2009?

Answer 14

Remove ~20% of pesticides from use in Europe

Question 15

What do the terms EIL and ET mean?

Answer 15

EIL - economic injury level
- cost of any yield loss
- is yield loss more than cost of management (product pest management, labour, equipment, fuel costs)
ET - economic threshold
- equal to or lower than the EIL
- ET depends on the speed of the product used for pest management

Question 16

What are the four types of pests are there? How would they look on an Economic threshold graph?

Answer 16

Sub-economic - pests never rise above the ET level and though are not worth treating, simply a cost of business
- graph rises and falls periodically but never above ET
Occasional - Pests occasionally rise above ET (locusts for example)
- graph usually below ET but occasionally rises above
Perennial - Rise above the ET once a year e.g. Myzus spp.
- Graph rises and falls periodically on a yearly basis
Severe - Constantly above the ET
- graph always above ET

Question 17

What are the monitoring techniques involved in pest management?

Answer 17

Absolute Methods

• Directly counting
• Vacuuming techniques
• Insecticidal fogs
• Beating trays

Relative
- pheromone traps
- pitfall traps
- sticky traps
- water traps
- light traps
Relative downfalls depend on individuals present in any area and the motility of the species

Question 18

Why might growers not implement a pest management technique?

Answer 18

Monitoring will cost money
A pesticide application is easier
Threshold may be zero (pest free produce) so spray anyway

Question 19

What is the calculation used to calculate ET?

Answer 19

ET=C/(P*D)
ET = pest density
C = cost of control
P = price of harvested product
D = yield loss per pest(s) (damage function)

Question 20

What factors constrain the ET calculation?

Answer 20

Market value - market value increases ET decreases
Agronomic practices - farming practices, well watered/fed plants more resistant to pests
Geographic location - climate conditions (optimum for some pests etc.)
Control costs - cost of control increases ET increases

Question 21

What does the graph for yield/pest density look like?

Answer 21

Slight rise in pests - over compensation in yield (cotton for example)
Pests increase further - gradual decline until a resistant point is met for a certain period of time yield remains stable
Pests increase further yield becomes a linear regression (y=mx+c) until reaching 0
EIL line - before EIL = non-economic losses, costing more to fix than to ignore
- after EIL = economic losses costing more to ignore than to fix

Question 22

What are the steps in an IPM programme?

Answer 22

Define ecosystem - may be 1 farm may be much larger (countries, continents)
Define pests - Key pests vs secondary pests - which pests are worse?
Define predatory species - Are predators important in the ecosystem? What are their numbers and should this prevent the use of non-target pesticides?
Establish monitoring pests + predators - Numbers increasing/decreasing. If Pred increasing is it worth taking action?
Establish thresholds
Augment Environmental Resolution - Make life harsh for pests e.g. well fed/watered plants
Use pesticides as a last resort - utilise sensible techniques - dosage etc.