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Introduction to Pathology Flashcards

1
Q

What is pathology?

A

Pathology is the study of abnormalities in the body and is considered the foundation of medicine.

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2
Q

What are the four types of cell adaptation?

A
  • Hyperplasia
  • Hypertrophy
  • Atrophy
  • Metaplasia
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3
Q

What occurs during cell injury?

A

Cell injury occurs when a cell fails to adapt or is exposed to an injurious stimulus.

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4
Q

What are reactive oxygen species (ROS)?

A

ROS are highly reactive molecules that can cause cellular damage.

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5
Q

What is the role of antioxidants?

A

Antioxidants neutralize ROS and protect cells from oxidative stress.

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6
Q

Define hyperplasia.

A

Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells.

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7
Q

Define hypertrophy.

A

Hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells.

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8
Q

Define atrophy.

A

Atrophy is a decrease in the size of cells.

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9
Q

Define metaplasia.

A

Metaplasia is a change from one mature cell type to another.

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10
Q

What is physiologic atrophy?

A

Physiologic atrophy is the involution of the uterus following childbirth.

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11
Q

What is pathologic atrophy?

A

Pathologic atrophy is the atrophy of muscles following a fracture.

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12
Q

What is physiologic hypertrophy?

A

Physiologic hypertrophy is the growth of the uterus in pregnancy.

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13
Q

What is pathologic hypertrophy?

A

Pathologic hypertrophy is the hypertrophy of the left ventricle in hypertension.

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14
Q

What is physiologic hyperplasia?

A

Physiologic hyperplasia is hyperplasia of the breast during puberty.

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15
Q

What is pathologic hyperplasia?

A

Pathologic hyperplasia is endometrial hyperplasia due to prolonged estrogen stimulation.

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16
Q

What is metaplasia in smokers?

A

Metaplasia is squamous metaplasia of the respiratory epithelium in smokers.

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17
Q

What is reversible cell injury?

A

Reversible injury occurs when cells can recover if the stimulus is removed.

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18
Q

What is irreversible cell injury?

A

Irreversible injury leads to cell death, either necrosis or apoptosis.

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19
Q

What are common causes of cell injury?

A
  • Hypoxia
  • Physical agents
  • Chemical agents
  • Biological agents
  • Immunologic reactions
  • Genetic abnormalities
  • Nutritional imbalance
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20
Q

What happens during necrosis?

A

Necrosis is unprogrammed cell death caused by external factors, leading to damage of the plasma membrane.

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21
Q

What is coagulative necrosis?

A

Coagulative necrosis is characterized by hypoxic cell death where cells retain their original shape and size.

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22
Q

What is liquefactive necrosis?

A

Liquefactive necrosis involves the transformation of dead tissue into a liquid viscous mass.

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23
Q

What is caseous necrosis?

A

Caseous necrosis is characteristic of tuberculosis, with a cheese-like appearance.

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24
Q

What is fibrinoid necrosis?

A

Fibrinoid necrosis occurs in autoimmune disorders, involving antigen-antibody complexes deposited in vessel walls.

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25
What is fat necrosis?
Fat necrosis occurs in acute pancreatitis and trauma, involving the release of lipase that splits triglycerides.
26
What is gangrene?
Gangrene is tissue death caused by lack of blood supply, classified into dry, wet, and gas gangrene.
27
What is apoptosis?
Apoptosis is programmed cell death involving intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.
28
What is autophagy?
Autophagy is a survival mechanism where cells digest their own contents and recycle the materials.
29
What are the two main types of white blood cells (WBCs)?
* Granulocytes * Agranulocytes
30
What are the five cardinal signs of inflammation?
* Heat * Redness * Swelling * Pain * Loss of function
31
What are the cellular events in acute inflammation?
* Margination * Adhesion * Transmigration * Chemotaxis * Phagocytosis
32
What are exogenous mediators of inflammation?
Exogenous mediators include bacterial endotoxins.
33
What is the outcome of resolution in acute inflammation?
Resolution involves restoration of normal tissue after inflammation.
34
What is chronic inflammation?
Chronic inflammation is inflammation of prolonged duration where tissue destruction and healing are proceeding simultaneously.
35
What is granulomatous inflammation?
Granulomatous inflammation is characterized by the formation of granulomas, aggregates of activated macrophages or epithelial cells surrounded by lymphocytes.
36
What are the phases of wound healing?
* Inflammatory phase * Proliferative phase * Remodeling phase
37
What are the three overlapping phases of the body's response to injury?
Inflammatory, proliferative, and remodelling
38
What is chronic inflammation?
Chronic inflammation can persist for weeks, months, or years
39
What are common causes of chronic inflammation?
* Persistent infection * Autoimmune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis * Prolonged exposure to toxic agents like silica
40
Which cells play a key role in chronic inflammation?
T lymphocytes and macrophages
41
What cytokines are produced by T cells in chronic inflammation?
* Tumour necrosis factor * Interferon gamma * Interleukin 17
42
What happens to monocytes in chronic inflammation?
Monocytes enter tissues, convert to macrophages, and undergo activation
43
What is granuloma formation?
Prolonged interaction of T cells and macrophages leads to granuloma formation
44
What is the appearance of the liver in chronic inflammation?
The liver shows a shrunken, nodular outer surface due to fibrosis
45
What characterizes rheumatoid arthritis in terms of inflammation?
Hypertrophied synovium with villous projections, dense fibrosis, and aggregates of chronic inflammatory cells
46
What do granulomas contain?
The offending agent
47
What are activated macrophages in granulomas called?
Epithelioid cells
48
What distinguishes caseating from non-caseating granulomas?
* Caseating granulomas have an area of caseous necrosis (typical in tuberculosis) * Non-caseating granulomas lack caseous necrosis (seen in sarcoidosis and Crohn's disease)
49
What occurs during the inflammatory phase of wound healing?
Formation of a primary haemostatic plug and activation of the coagulation cascade
50
Which cells are predominant in the initial inflammatory phase of wound healing?
Neutrophils
51
What processes occur during the proliferative phase of wound healing?
* Angiogenesis * Fibroblast proliferation * Granulation tissue formation
52
What is the remodelling phase of wound healing characterized by?
Collagen remodelling and increased tensile strength
53
What are the two types of wound healing?
* First intention: minimal injury, well-approximated edges * Second intention: extensive tissue loss, increased infection risk
54
What is neoplasia?
Abnormal tissues showing uncontrolled growth
55
How are neoplasms classified?
* Benign * Malignant
56
What are key characteristics of benign neoplasms?
* Resemble the cell of origin * Usually solitary * Mostly capsulated * Slow growth * No local infiltration or metastasis
57
How are benign mesenchymal tumors named?
By adding the suffix 'oma' to the cell of origin
58
What are examples of benign mesenchymal tumors?
* Chondroma * Osteoma * Haemangioma * Lymphangioma * Fibroma * Lipoma * Leiomyoma
59
What distinguishes malignant neoplasms from benign neoplasms?
Malignant neoplasms may not resemble the cell of origin and have potential to invade and metastasize
60
What are the hallmarks of cancer?
* Sustained proliferation * Evasion of growth suppressors * Resistance to cell death * Immortality * Induction of angiogenesis * Invasion and metastasis * Evasion of the immune system * Abnormal metabolic pathways
61
What cytologic features are characteristic of malignant neoplasms?
* Increased nuclear size * High nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio * Pleomorphism * Anaplasia * Hyperchromatic nuclei * Prominent nucleoli * Irregular chromatin distribution * Increased mitotic figures
62
What is carcinoma in situ?
Malignant cells confined to the site of origin with an intact basement membrane and no stromal invasion
63
What factors contribute to cancer development?
* Host factors * Environmental factors * Lifestyle factors
64
What role do proto-oncogenes play in cancer?
Proto-oncogenes can transform into oncogenes, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation
65
What happens when tumor suppressor genes are inactivated?
Result in uncontrolled cell growth
66
What are the types of carcinogens?
* Physical * Microbial * Chemical
67
What is angiogenesis in cancer?
The formation of new blood vessels to support tumor growth
68
What is the process of invasion and metastasis in cancer?
Cancer cells spread through direct extension, lymphatic channels, bloodstream, and seeding
69
What is the significance of hematogenous spread in cancer?
Involves local invasion, intravasation, dissemination, extravasation, and colonization

General Principles (7 decks)

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