Introduction to Indian Country

Question 1

Two Spirit (2S)

Answer 1

Two-Spirit is a cultural concept specific to some Indigenous communities and its meaning encompasses cultural, spiritual, sexual and gender identity. It reflects complex Indigenous understandings of gender roles, spirituality, and the long history of sexual and gender diversity in Indigenous cultures, and as such should only be used by Indigenous people.

See “Equity and Inclusion Glossary of Terms.” UBC Equity & Inclusion Office, https://equity.ubc.ca/resources/equity-inclusion-glossary-of-terms/.

Question 2

Indian Country

Answer 2

Indian Country legally refers to “(a) all land within the limits of any Indian reservation under the jurisdiction of the United States Government, notwithstanding the issuance of any patent, and, including rights-of-way running through the reservation, (b) all dependent Indian communities within the borders of the United States whether within the original or subsequently acquired territory thereof, and whether within or without the limits of a state, and (c) all Indian allotments, the Indian titles to which have not been extinguished, including rights-of-way running through the same.”

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 3

Indian Reservation

Answer 3

An Indian Reservation “is an area of land re-served for a tribe or tribes under treaty or other agreement with the United States, executive order, or federal statute or administrative action as permanent tribal homelands, and where the federal government holds title to the land in trust on behalf of the tribe.”

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 4

Native American

Answer 4

Native American refers to “all Native peoples of the United States and its trust territories.” This includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, Chamorros, American Samoans, and U.S. residents from Canada First Nations and indigenous communities in Central and South America.

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 5

Native Food Sovereignty

Answer 5

Native food sovereignty refers to “the right of American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians to produce their own traditional foods on their own lands to sustain themselves, their families and their communities.”

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 6

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Answer 6

Traditional Ecological Knowledge is “a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment.”

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 7

Tribe or Federally Recognized (Indian) Tribe

Answer 7

Tribe, otherwise called a “federally recognized (Indian) Tribe,” refers to any American Indian or Alaska Native tribal entity with a government-to-government relationship with the U.S. that is entitled to federal trust obligations. There are currently 567 federally recognized tribes in the United States. Each tribe is distinct, with its own culture, traditions, language, and community.

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 8

Trust and Treaty Obligation

Answer 8

Trust and Treaty Obligation refers to the federal government’s responsibility “to protect tribal treaty rights, lands, assets, and resources, as well as a duty to carry out the mandates of federal law with respect to American Indian and Alaska Native tribes and villages.”

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 9

American Indian (AI)/Alaska Native (AN)

Answer 9

As used in the United States Census, an American Indian/Alaska Native is a person “having origins in any original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains cultural identification through tribal affiliation or community recognition.” This term is often used in reference to collected data about the population.

aspen. “Native Language: Modern Terms for Understanding Native America.” The Aspen Institute, 22 Nov. 2019, https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/native-language-modern-terms-for-understanding-native-america/.

Question 10

Indigenous Peoples

Answer 10

There are 370 million Indigenous people around the world and spread across more than 90 countries. They belong to more than 5,000 different Indigenous peoples and speak more than 4,000 languages. Indigenous people represent about 5% of the world’s population. The vast majority of them – 70% – live in Asia.

Native American Glossary | Office of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion. https://www.edi.nih.gov/blog/communities/native-american-glossary.

Question 11

Powwow Regalia

Answer 11

Powwow regalia is a powerful mode of self-expression that blends historical and modern dress. Worn with responsibility and pride, the clothing represents community traditions and personal tastes. A dancer’s powwow outfit is a collection of items that reflect their lives, interests, and family background. Many wear garments that are family heirlooms or gifts crafted by family members.

Native American Glossary | Office of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion. https://www.edi.nih.gov/blog/communities/native-american-glossary.

Question 12

Sovereignty

Answer 12

Sovereignty is a legal word for an ordinary concept—the authority to self-govern. Hundreds of treaties, along with the Supreme Court, the President, and Congress, have repeatedly affirmed that tribal nations retain their inherent powers of self-government. These treaties, executive orders, and laws have created a fundamental contract between tribes and the United States.

Native American Glossary | Office of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion. https://www.edi.nih.gov/blog/communities/native-american-glossary.

Question 13

Tribal Affiliation

Answer 13

Tribal affiliation means an association with federally recognized Indian tribes or bands.

Native American Glossary | Office of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion. https://www.edi.nih.gov/blog/communities/native-american-glossary.

Question 14

Allotment

Answer 14

A piece of land deeded by the U.S. government to an individual American Indian, as a way to break up the communal ownership of a reservation. In giving individuals their own parcels of land, the amount of land given to a tribe as a whole could be reduced, and the process of assimilation greatly increased through pushing farming upon the newly split lots in order to generate enough food to survive without wild plants or hunting. Allotment also led to the loss of land over generations in two crucial ways. First, many individuals were assigned multiple parcels that were geographically far apart, leading squatters to claim land. Second, allotments carried many stipulations about how the land could be passed on within a family or who it could be sold to — if any of these complicated restrictions were not met, the land was removed from Indian trust.

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“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 15

Anishinaabe

Answer 15

Refers to a group of culturally and linguistically related, though distinct, tribes whose historic lands encompass the Great Lakes on both sides of what is now the US-Canada border.

The Council of Three Fires (also known as Niswi-mishkodewinan, the People of the Three Fires, or the Three Fires Confederacy), is a long-standing alliance between three Anishinaabe tribes: the Ojibwe (also known as Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux), Odawa (also known as Ottawa, or Odaawaa), and Potawatomi (also known as Bodewotomi, Pottawatomi, or Pottawatomie).

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 16

Assimilation

Answer 16

The act, whether by choice or by force, of a cultural group or person adopting traits from a more dominant cultural group. In the boarding school era, students were expected to assimilate to American culture through practicing Christianity and speaking English or other colonial languages. While some individuals choose to assimilate, as a whole Native Amerians have been forced to assimilate to Euro-American culture.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 17

Blood Quantum

Answer 17

A measurement derived from faulty race science and is still in use by many tribal and non-tribal entities. Blood does not constitute a Native identity, however, many treaty rights rely on it to determine how ‘Indian’ an individual is.

Blood quantum (BQ) relies on oversimplified division: with each generation the amount of ‘Indian blood’ is halved. For example, a person with one full-blooded Native American parent would be ½ BQ; a person with one full-blooded Native American grandparent would be ¼ and so on. Blood quantum is related to, but can be distinct from, tribal enrollment: some tribes require a certain BQ to enroll, others rely on engagement with the tribe or trace ancestral lineages differently. Blood quantum often affects treaty rights.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 18

Settler Colonialism

Answer 18

Involves large scale immigration to a new region with the goal of replacing any existing populations with a new society of settlers. It can involve any combination of violent depopulation and assimilation tactics. While other forms of colonialism are highly motivated by the extraction of natural and human resources, settlers typically view themselves as racially superior to indigenous populations, lending a perceived legitimacy to violent interactions, including forced assimilation.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 19

Indian Boarding School

Answer 19

Unlike modern boarding schools, Indian Boarding Schools were a system created in the early to mid 19th century with the intent of fully assimilating Native American children (and at times adults, as it was not uncommon for children to be held well into their 20s) to Euro-American culture. At these schools children commonly suffered emotional, physical, and sexual abuse at the hands of the ‘educators,’ and were usually banned from speaking their Native language or practicing any religious customs as Christianity was used as a main agent in assimilation. Most coursework at these schools focused on religion and labor such as farming or domestic housework. These schools continued to exist into the late 20th century, but their peak ended around the 1920s.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 20

Powwow

Answer 20

A single or multi-day social gatherings that typically involve dancing, singing, drum circles, and other activities that allow specific tribes to honor their culture. They often feature large dance competitions showcasing traditional dances and regalia.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 21

Pan-Indian

Answer 21

A description of Indigenous activities tied to no specific tribe, at times being a cultural distinction or others a religious viewpoint. Made more common after wars in the 19th century and the mixing of youths of hundreds of tribes at boarding schools, a concept of overarching beliefs and practices emerged.

This is not to say that individual tribes have relinquished their identity into pan-indianism; it is to explain similar cultural and other practices that exist among Native people outside of tribal or regional descriptions.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 22

Nation

Answer 22

The word nation is historically more associated with a physical territory or geographic region. It was adopted into the mainstream discourse on American Indians around the War of 1812. The British felt referring to Native communities as nations elevated them politically and took power out of the US’ claims to expansion. Today, some groups refer to themselves as tribes and others nations, and, colloquially, the two terms are often used interchangeably despite different connotations.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 23

Band

Answer 23

A tribe or nation can contain multiple bands, which tend to be groups that are smaller in population. Bands frequently began as smaller kinship groups and can have their own distinct variants on language or traditions. They sometimes have their own governing bodies which legislate independently or in tandem of the larger tribe.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 24

‘VANISHING’ RACE OR INDIAN

Answer 24

‘VANISHING’ RACE OR INDIAN
Forwarded by photographer Edward Curtis and ideas such as the ‘Frontier Thesis’ by Frederick Jackson Turner, the concept of Native Americans as a race that would be extinct upon the climax of Manifest Destiny was a commonly held belief at the turn of the 20th century. This belief ingrained itself into the American consciousness, freezing Native Americans in the past. Clearly untrue, this concept mitigates feelings of settler guilt by framing Native Americans as a past people. This is further enforced by the majority of education, representation, and presentation of Native Americans as focusing on pre-1900s history.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 25

Wild Westing

Answer 25

William Cody, nicknamed Buffalo Bill, created his famous cowboy, Indian, and battles theater group named Buffalo Bill’s Wild West in 1883. This group (and similar) employed Native Americans such as Sitting Bull to tour the U.S. and parts of Europe. While dramatizing events and exoticizing members, the Wild West gave an opportunity for Native Americans to earn substantial amounts of money, garner fame, travel the world, and perform.

“Glossary.” UM Clements Library, https://clements.umich.edu/exhibit/pohrt/glossary/

Question 26

Dawes Act

Answer 26

The Dawes Act (sometimes called the Dawes Severalty Act or General Allotment Act), passed in 1887 under President Grover Cleveland, allowed the federal government to break up tribal lands. The federal government aimed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream US society by encouraging them towards farming and agriculture, which meant dividing tribal lands into individual plots. Only the Native Americans who accepted the division of tribal lands were allowed to become US citizens.

The Dawes Act (U.S. National Park Service). https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/dawes-act.htm.

Question 27

Chiefing

Answer 27

Similar to ‘Wild Westing’, Chiefing is a practice dating back to 1930, “when a souvenir shop called Lloyd’s asked its employees to stand outside in their regalia to draw in customers”. Usually dressed in a feather headdress and pan-Indian costume, “chiefing” often involves an indigenous person wearing and performing culturally inaccurate caricatures of Native Americans for tourists. While controversial, within indigenous communities this is often seen as a legitimate survival strategy.

Question 28

Trail of Tears

Answer 28

The term “Trail of Tears” refers to the difficult journeys that the Five Tribes took during their forced removal from the southeast during the 1830s and 1840s. The Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole were all marched out of their ancestral lands to Indian Territory, or present Oklahoma. Although the removal of American Indians began long before the nineteenth century, the Trail of Tears is mostly associated with the forced removals that took place after the 1830 Indian Removal Act.