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Endocrinology > Introduction to endocrinology and hormone action > Flashcards

Introduction to endocrinology and hormone action Flashcards

1
Q

Which system has long term control, controls and coordinates body processes?

A

Endocrine system

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2
Q

Which type of communication has an exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent cells across gap junctions? These are highly specialized and relatively rare. An example of this would be cardiac muscle cells.

A

Direct communication

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3
Q

What type of communication has chemical signals transfer information from cell to cell within a single tissue? An example of this is immunological defense.

A

Paracrine communication

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4
Q

What type of communication has messages that affect the same cells that secrete them? An example of this is prostaglandins secreted by smooth muscle cells cause the same cells to contract.

A

Autocrine communication

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5
Q

What type of communication is long distance and they release chemicals (HORMONES) that are transported in bloodstream? they alter metabolic activities of many organs.

A

Endocrine communication

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6
Q

What has receptors need to bind and read hormonal messages?

A

Target cell

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7
Q

What type of communication release signals to a specific location? This is found in neurons release neurotransmitters at a synapse. This has high speed messages to reach specific destinations.

A

Synaptic communication

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8
Q

what are the types of amino acid derivative hormones?

A

1) Thyroid hormones
2) Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine)
3) Serotonin and melatonin

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9
Q

What type of hormones bind to receptors on the plasma membrane?

A

Amino acid/ peptide hormones

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10
Q

Which type of hormone triggers secondary messengers?

A

Peptide hormones

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11
Q

Which type of hormones enter directly into the cell and need a carrier protein to travel through the blood?

A

Lipid derived hormones

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12
Q

What are the types of lipid derivative hormones?

A

1) Eicosanoids
2) PROSTAGLANDINS
3) ***Steroid hormones
4) Corticosteroids and calcitriol from the kidney

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13
Q

What is derived from cholesterol; Androgens/ Estrogen/ Progesterone from ovaries in females?

A

Steroids

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14
Q

Paracrines that coordinate cellular activities and affect enzymatic processes (such as blood clotting) are called?

A

Eicosanoids

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15
Q

What coordinates local cellular activity (used for pain regulation)?

A

Prostaglandins

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16
Q

What are some types of peptide hormones?

A

1) TSH
2) LH
3) FSH
4) ADH
5) OXT
6) Insulin
7) Growth hormone
8) prolactin

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17
Q

What are not soluble, unable to penetrate plasma membrane, and bind to receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors)?

A

Catacholamines and peptide hormones

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18
Q

What are lipid soluble, diffuse across plasma membrane and bind to receptor inside cell (intracellular receptors)?

A

Steroid and thyroid hormones

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19
Q

what indirectly affects target cells by stimulating other endocrine glands?

A

Tropic hormones

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20
Q

What are some tropic hormones?

A

1) thyrotropin (TSH) thyroid stimulating hormone
2) Adrencorticotropic hormone (ACTH
3) Growth Hormone
4) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
5) Luteinizing hormone (LH)

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21
Q

If calcium is above the threshold of normality calcium will bind to the parathyroid halting production of Calcium. this is considered?

A

Negative feedback

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22
Q

What triggers G-protein activation?

A

protein hormones

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23
Q

***Exam question:
What would be my best receptor to use for a small quantity of protein and maximal amount of signal outcome?

A

G-protein

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24
Q

What activates one single transduction pathway?

A

G-protein

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25
Q

What activates many pathways?

A

RTK

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26
Q

Pineal gland hormone

A

Melatonin

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27
Q

Parathyroid gland hormone

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

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28
Q

Adrenal medulla hormone

A

1) Epinephrine
2) Norepinephrine (NE)

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29
Q

Adrenal cortex hormone

A

1) Cortisol
2) Corticosteroid
3) cortisone
4) Aldosterone
5) androgens

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30
Q

Pancreas hormones

A

1) insulin
2) glucagon

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31
Q

heart hormones

A

1) atrial natriuretic peptide
2) Brain natriuretic peptide

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32
Q

Adipose tissue

A

leptin

33
Q

kidneys

A

1) erythropoietin
2) Calcitriol

34
Q

Testes

A

1) androgens
2) Inhibin

35
Q

Ovaries

A

1) estrogens
2) Progesterone
3) inhibin

36
Q

How does alternative splicing work for hormones?

A

In eukaryotes almost all genes for proteins consist of regions of DNA that carry the code for the protein (exons) interrupted by noncoding sequences in the primary mRNA transcript.
Maturation of the primary transcript involves the splicing of these coding regions together as well as the addition of the 5’ cap and the poly A tail typical of eukaryotic mRNA.
The splicing of the exons takes place in the nucleus and is carried out by large RNA/protein complexes called spliceosomes. It is the spliceosomes that are responsible for splice site

37
Q

Why is it important to process pre/pro hormones just prior to secretion?

A

1) many proteins and peptide hormones are synthesized within a larger precursor protein, of which three examples are shown. the process is catalyzed by specific proteases that cleave the protein at specific sites. Much of this processing takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus and in secretory vesicles prior to the secretion of the hormones. Many hormones are synthesized such as the parathyroid hormone
2) Several different active peptides are within a single precursor protein, which is processed differently in different cell types; such as proopiomelanocortin (POMC)
3) Thirdly, a precursor protein can contain several copies of the hormone, each of which is excised at a pair of specific proteolytic sites, as in the case of the tri-peptide, TRH

38
Q

Briefly describe the concept of negative feedback in endocrinology. What are the mechanisms that this can be triggered with?

A

Hormone secretion
-Mainly controlled by negative feedback
-Stimulus triggers production of hormones that reduces intensity of the stimulus
-Can be triggered by:
1) Hormonal stimuli (change in extracellular fluid)
2) Neural stimuli (neurotransmitters)

39
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located in comparison to the location of the hypothalamus?

A

It lies within sella turcica (depression area of the sphenoid bone)
-Sellar diaphragm isolates pituitary gland from cranial cavity
-hands inferior to hypothalamus
-connected by infundibulum

40
Q

What is the typical type of receptor used by hormones released from the pituitary gland? How do these receptors function?

A

1) Bind to extracellular receptors
2) Use cAMP as secondary messenger

41
Q

What are the main functions of the hypothalamus?

A

1) Regulates functions of the pituitary gland
2) Synthesizes ADH and OXT and transports them to posterior pituitary gland for release
3) Secretes regulatory hormones that control secretory activity of anterior pituitary gland
4) Contains autonomic centers that exert direct control over adrenal medulla

42
Q

What is the hypothalamus releasing?

A

1) CRH
2) GnRH
3) TRH
they act on the pituitary gland

43
Q

What is the importance of a portal system in this area?

A

1) The portal system empties blood from the gastrointestinal tract into the liver
2) The hypothyseal portal system and the blood supply to the pituitary gland
-The superior hypophyseal artery delivers blood to a capillary network in the upper infundibulum
-The portal vessels deliver blood containing regulatory hormones to the capillary network in the anterior lobe of the pituitary
-The inferior hypophyseal artery delivers blood to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
-Hypophyseal veins carry blood containing the pituitary hormones to the cardiovascular system for delivery to the rest of the body

44
Q

What is the difference between RH and IH?

A

1) Hypothalamic control of anterior lobe
2) Two classes of hypothalamic regulatory hormones
-Releasing Hormones (RH)
-Stimulate synthesis and secretion of one or more hormones at anterior lobe
-Inhibiting Hormones (IH)
-prevent synthesis and secretion of hormones from anterior lobe
-Rate of secretion is controlled by negative feedback

45
Q

How does activation of a nuclear receptor work? Which class of hormones would do that?

A

1) Nuclear receptors for some of the classical steroid hormones are typified by the glucocorticoid receptor, GR, and its interaction with cortisol
2) In the absence of ligand these receptors are in the cytosol complexed with heat shock proteins that maintain them in an inactive state
3) The conformational change brought about by ligand binging causes the HSP to dissociate and the receptor translocates to the nucleus
4) The ligand-activated dimer of wither type of nuclear receptor (hetero- or homodimer) binds to a specific sequence of DNA, a hormone response element (HRE)
5) A variety of proteins, termed coactivators, are recruited to the complex to modify chromatin structure and recruit and stabilize the basal transcriptional machinery. This includes the general transcriptional factors (GTF) and DNA-dependent-RNA polymerase

46
Q

thyroid gland hormones

A

1) Thyroxine (T4)
2) Triiodothyronine (T3)
3) Calcitonin

46
Q

What are the most common disorders associated with the pituitary gland?

A

1) Acromegaly
2) Cushing disease

47
Q

These are non-cancerous tumors that form in the pituitary gland?

A

Pituitary adenomas

48
Q

This causes an overproduction of prolactin, leading to issues like irregular menstrual cycles, infertility, and lactation in non-pregnant individuals. More common in females vs. males. This is the most common of all cases.

A

Prolactinomas

49
Q

This causes an overproduction of growth hormone, causing acromegaly in adults and gigantism in children.

A

Somatotroph adenomas

50
Q

What causes an overproduction of adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), resulting in Cushing’s disease. More common in females vs. males

A

Corticotroph adenomas

51
Q

Rare tumor causing overproduction of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Symptoms: tremulousness, weight loss, heat intolerance, diarrhea, anxiety and palpitations

A

Thyrotroph adenomas

52
Q

What are some tools for diagnosis of adenomas?

A

1) Images techniques such as MRI and CT scans help visualize tumor
2) Hormone level testing is crucial for identifying hormonal imbalances associated with specific adenomas
3) Visual field testing may be conducted to assess vision abnormalities

53
Q

What are some treatment options for adenomas in the pituitary gland?

A

1) Transsphenoidal surgery
2) Medications
3) Radiation therapy

54
Q

What is the name of a common surgical approach involving removal of the tumor through the nasal passage, minimizing damage to surrounding structures?

A

Transsphenoidal surgery

55
Q

What is transsphenoidal surgery?

A

Reaches the tumor through the nasal passages and the sphenoid sinus. this less-invasive approach allows the neurosurgeon to avoid important brain structures b accessing the pituitary gland from underneath the brain. this surgery leaves no visible scar, minimizes the risk complications, and enables faster recovery

56
Q

What are 2 types of radiation therapy?

A

1) External Beam radiation
2) Stereotactic tadiosurgery

57
Q

What would you use in cases where surgery is not feasible if the tumor persists after surgery (THIS CAN BE USED SEVERAL TIMES)LOW DOSE?

A

External Beam radiation

58
Q

This is percise, targeted radiation delivered to the tumor (ONLY USED ONCE) HIGH DOSE)?

A

Stereotactic radiosurgery

59
Q

What refers to the underproduction of hormones by the pituitary gland?

A

Hypopituitarism

60
Q

What refers to the overproduction of hormones by the pituitary gland?

A

Hyperpituitarism

61
Q

What are the causes of hypopituitarism?

A

1) Tumor: Pituitary tumors, either non-functioning or those affecting hormone production
2) Head trauma: Injuries to the head that impact the pituitary gland
3) Radiation therapy: Exposure to radiation, often used in the treatment of head and neck cancer
4) Infection: Inflammatory diseases affecting the pituitary gland
5) Genetic factors: Rare genetic conditions impacting pituitary function

62
Q

What are the causes of Hyperpituitarism?

A

1) Pituitary tumors: Most commonly, hyperituitarism is caused by tumors, such as adenomas, that stimulate excessive hormone production
2) Acromegaly: overproduction of growth hormone in adults, often due to pituitary tumors
3) Cushing’s disease: Overproduction of Adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH) leading to excess cortisol production
4) Hyperprolactinemia: Excessive production of prolactin, often associated with prolactinomas

63
Q

What drug is effective for prolactinomas, these drugs reduce prolactin levels and often shrink the tumor?

A

Dopamine Agonists

64
Q

What drug is used for growth hormone-secreting adenomas to control hormone levels?

A

Somatostatin analogues

65
Q

What is a stimulation test?

A

A stimulation test for the pituitary is a diagnostic procedure designed to asses function of the pituitary gland by provoking it to release specific hormones. These tests are commonly used to identify hormonal deficiencies or excess and help in the diagnosis of various pituitary disorders

66
Q

Give an example of a stimulation test for Gonadotropin-releasing hormone?

A

1) Purpose: evaluates the pituitary response to GnRH, which stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
2) Procedure: Administering GnRH and measuring the subsequent rise in LH and FSH levels
3) Interpretation: Helps diagnose conditions related to gonadal function and puberty

67
Q

Give an example of a stimulation test for Corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH) stimulation test:

A

1) Purpose: Assesses the pituitary-adrenal axis by stimulating the release of ACTH
2) Procedure: Administration of CRH and measurement of ACTH and cortisol levels
3) Interpretation: Useful in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome and related disorders

68
Q

Overproduction of Growth hormone in adults, often due to pituitary tumors causes?

A

Acromegaly

69
Q

Overproduction of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) leading to excess cortisol production causes?

A

Cushing’ disease

70
Q

When would a GH replacement therapy be useful? What are some effects of this treatment?

A

1) Hormone replacement therapy
-replacement of deficient hormones such as cortisol, thyroid hormones, sex hormones, and growth hormone
-Individualized treatment plans based on specific hormone deficiencies
2) Addressing underlying causes:
-Surgical removal or management of pituitary tumors
-correction of head trauma-related issues
-Addressing infections through appropriate medical interventions
3) Diet and exercise

71
Q

what are Non-functional tumors?

A

tumors that do not secrete excess hormones but can cause symptoms due to their size compression of nearby structures
-symptoms related to tumor size such as headaches, vision problems

72
Q

What are functional tumors?

A

Tumors that overproduce hormones, leading to specific hormonal imbalances

73
Q

What are some symptoms related to functional tumors?

A

Over production of hormones
1) Acromegaly in growth hormone-secreting tumors
2) Cushing’s syndrome in ACTH-secreting tumors

74
Q

What are some common complications of these tumors?

A

1) Vision loss: due to compression of the optic nerve
2) Hormonal imbalances: leading to various health issues
3) Recurrence: some tumors may recur, requiring ongoing monitoring

75
Q

What is ESS?

A

Empty sella syndrome (ESS) is a condition where the sella turcica, a bony structure in the skull that houses the pituitary gland appears, empty or partially filled with cerebrospinal fluid. it is not a true “empty” sella but rather a structural abnormality

76
Q

What are the causes of ESS?

A

1) primary: sella turcica becomes filled with cerebrospinal fluid without apparent cause
2) Secondary: often associated with previous surgery, radiation, therapy, or certain medical conditions that lead to a flattening of the pituitary gland against the sella turcica

77
Q

What are the symptoms of ESS?

A

1) Often asymptomatic: many individuals with ESS do not experience symptoms
2) Hormonal dysfunction: in some cases, may be associated with hormonal imbalances due to compression or displacement of the pituitary gland

78
Q

How to diagnose ESS?

A

1) Imaging: MRI
2) Hormonal level testing

Endocrinology (2 decks)

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