Introduction To Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
What is physiology?
Physiology is the study of how the body functions.
What is anatomy?
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the animal body and the relationship among its parts.
Define microscopic anatomy.
The study of cells and tissues that require a microscope to visualize.
Define macroscopic anatomy.
The study of structures that can be seen without a microscope and is also referred to as gross anatomy.
The _____ plane divides the animal down the center into equal left and right halves. Also known as a midsagittal plane.
Median
The _____ plane runs the length of the body and divides the body parallel to the median plane into left and right parts that are not necessarily equal.
Sagittal
**A body can have multiple sagittal planes on the right and left sides.
Dorsal plane
Perpendicular to the median plane. Divides the body into two parts, one containing the belly, the other containing the back.
Transverse plane
Lies perpendicular (at a right angle) to both the median plane and the dorsal plane. Divides the body into two sections - one containing the head and the other the tail.
Cranial
Toward the head
Caudal
Toward the tail end
Rostral
Refers to parts of the head that are closer to the tip of the nose.
Dorsal
Closer to the back or spine.
Ventral
The opposite of dorsal; nearer to the side of the animal that is closest to the ground. Toward the belly.
Lateral
A position farther away from the median plane (toward the side - either left or right).
Medial
A position closer to the median plane (which goes through the spine/center of the body).
Anterior
In front of or in the forward part of an organ (i.e. The side you see when you stand face to face with an animal.)
Posterior
The opposite of anterior; it refers to a position or surface toward the rear of the animal.
Proximal
Refers to a body part’s being closer to the main portion of the body. Closer to the origin of flow.
Distal
Describes a body part that’s placed farther out from the main portion of the body. Closer to the destination of flow.
Superficial
Refers to a position that’s located toward the surface of a structure.
Deep
Refers to a position located toward the center of a structure.
Orad
Refers to movement within the gastrointestinal system in the direction of the mouth. ➡️
Aborad
Motion in the direction away from the mouth.
Bilateral symmetry
The organism’s left and right halves are approximate mirror images of each other.
Radial symmetry
The axis of symmetry is around a central point.
The dorsal body cavity contains…
The central nervous system and is subdivided into the cranial cavity and a spinal cavity.
The cranial cavity is formed from…
The bones of the skull and contains the brain.
The spinal cavity is formed from…
The vertebra and contains the spinal chord.
The ventral body cavity contains…
Two compartments, the thorax and the abdomen separated by the diaphragm.
The thoracic cavity contains…
The heart ❤️, lungs, and esophagus. Also known as the pleural cavity.
Pleura
A thin membrane that covers the thorax and the organs within it.
The abdominal cavity contains…
All the organs of the reproductive and urinary systems as well as the stomach and intestinal tract. Also known as the peritoneal cavity.
Peritoneum
A membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and the organs it contains.
Common characteristics all mammals have.
- hair
- mammary glands that secrete milk
- four-chambered heart
Organs are composed of…
Groups of tissues that have a common function and work together.
Organ systems consist of…
Groups of organs with related functions that interact.
Myocytes
Muscle cells
Enterocytes
The cells inside the intestinal tract.
Epithelial tissue
- Consists of sheets of cells that cover all of the internal and external surfaces of the body and line all of the body’s cavities.
- Serves to absorb or secrete substances and provide sensory input to other body tissues
Cell junctions
- Connect the cells of the epithelium
* Three types: tight junctions, adhering junctions, and gap junctions
Tight junctions
Prevent substances from leaking across the tissue
Adhering junctions
Cement neighboring cells together
Gap junctions
Open channels between the cytoplasm of adjoining cells
Microvilli serve to…
Increase the surface area of the cell and enhance the cell’s ability to absorb or secrete. They are common in the digestive and urinary tracts.
Cilia serve to…
Aid in transport of material. Hairlike projections found in the respiratory and urogenital tracts.
Exocrine glands
Secrete products into ducts.
Endocrine glands
Secrete products directly into the blood and lymph vessels.
Secretions
Specialized protein molecules that are produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, packaged into granules by the Golgi apparatus, and discharged from the cell.
Multicellular exocrine gland classifications:
- Shape of secreting duct (branched or unbeanched)
- Shape of their secretory portion (tubular, acinar, or tubuloacinar)
- Manner in which the secretion is released (merocrine, apocrine, or holocrine)
- Type of secretion (mucoid or serous)
Serous
- Watery and contains a high concentration of enzymes
* reduces friction between the cavities and organs
Mucous
- Thick, viscous, and composed of glycoproteins.
- Contains water, electrolytes, antibodies, and the protein mucin.
- Functions to reduce friction in the digestive system and entrap particles in the respiratory system.
Connective tissue serves to…
Bind and support the organisms and it’s body systems.
Types of connective tissue:
- Cartilage
- Bone
- Fibrous connective tissue
- Loose connective tissue
- Adipose tissue
- Blood
Condrocytes
Cartilage cells; embedded in a matrix of collagen.
Cartilage makes up…
Most of respiratory passages and is also found in ears.
Osteocytes
Bone cells; embedded in a matrix of collagen and minerals and form the skeleton of an organism.
Fibrous connective tissue forms…
Tendons and ligaments.
Loose connective tissue
Underlies the skin
Adipose tissue
Embedded in a lipid matrix; stores fat and have a wide distribution in organisms.
Blood
Unique type of connective tissue in that the cells aren’t embedded in a non living matrix (plasma) but are freely flowing through it.
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
Leukocytes
White blood cells
Membranes
Connective and epithelial tissues are linked to form membranes. Functions to cover surfaces, line cavities, and separate organs.
Types of membranes:
- Mucous
- Serous
- Cutaneous
- Synovial
Mucous membranes
- line the organs of the reproductive, urinary, and respiratory tract system.
- consist of an epithelial tissue layer of either simple or stratified epithelial cells, a loose connective tissue layer called the lamina propria, and a second connective tissue layer called the submucosa.
Serous membranes
- line the organs within the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.
- composed of a sheet of simple squamous epithelial cells that’s folded onto itself, forming a double layer.
Visceral layer
The layer closest to the organ
Parietal layer
The layer closest to the body cavity
Mesenteries
- In the abdominal and pelvic cavities, the visceral layer of the serous membranes becomes merged to form supportive ligaments
- functions to secure organs to the body wall
Cutaneous membrane
Referred to as the integument, which is considered to be an organ system.
Synovial membrane
- line the joint cavities
- composed only of loose connective and adipose tissue
- produce synovial fluid which reduces friction in joint spaces
Muscle tissue
- consists of specialized cells that can shorten to produce movement when stimulated
- functions in movement, maintenance of posture, and contractile functions
- proteins actin and myosin are proteins involved in contracting
Smooth muscle
- Composes the walls of the digestive tract
* it contracts involuntarily in response to specific stimuli from the nervous system
Skeletal muscle
Attaches to bones and is under voluntary control
Cardiac muscle
Unique to the heart and allows for the contraction and relaxation of heart tissue that provides for the flow of blood through an organism.
Nervous tissue
- Contains specialized cells that have the ability to conduct electrical impulses
- makes up the peripheral and central nervous system
Neuron
- The cellular subunit of nervous tissue
* composed of a cell body, an axon, and dendrites
Inflammatory response
- Vasoconstriction (_)
- Vasodilation (____)
- Clots form as WBC begin to remove cellular debris and infectious organisms.
- Blood vessels return to normal; swelling and tenderness subside.
Vasoconstriction
- Blood vessels narrow and cause a decrease of blood flow to the area.
- Decreased blood flow aids in the control of hemorrhage in the area.
Vasodilation
- Widening of the blood vessels.
- Causes blood flow to increase.
- Area becomes warm and red as a result of this increased blood flow.
- Plasma rushes into the area, causing swelling of the tissues.
Second-intention healing
- Wound edges separate = formation of granulation tissue over injured area.
- Epithelial cells enter area -> actively divide -> formation of new epithelial layer around granulation tissue.
- Collagen fibers are continually laid down -> injured area is filled with scar tissue -> wound closes.
Granulation tissue
- Composed of collagen fibers permeated with many capillaries.
- Protects the injured area from further damage and inhibits bacteria and other infectious agents from entering the area.
First-intention healing
- Granulation tissue is NOT formed.
* Wound edges heal quickly.
Third-intention healing
- Involves extensive tissue loss.
- Formation of granulation tissue
- Severity of tissue loss results in increased healing time.
Based on your understanding of the term superficial, where would you expect the superficial digital flexor tendon in a horse’s leg to be found, relative to the deep digital flexor?
It would be closer to the skin that the deep digital flexor tendon.
Which type of tissue would be found lining the tubes of the airways?
Epithelial
The first step in the inflammatory response is:
Vasoconstriction
The membranes that line joint cavities are described as:
Synovial
The membranes that line the organs within the thorax, abdominal, and pelvic cavities are described as:
Serous
Icterus
- An elevation of bilirubin in the blood.
- Characterized by a yellow-tinge to skin, mucous membranes, and eyes.
- Also known as jaundice.
What are some causes of icterus?
- liver failure
- hemolytic anemia
- obstruction of the bile duct
Hypoxia
- deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues
* mucous membranes turn blue due to lack of oxygen
What are some causes of hypoxia?
- tracheal obstruction
- severe pneumonia
- circulatory collapse
Hyperemia
Bright red mucous membranes
Hyperperfusion
• blood flow to peripheral tissues is increased
What are some clinical examples of hyperemia?
- febrile (fever) and hypertensive animals
* animals undergoing allergic reaction
Pale or white mucous membranes are indicative of:
- anemia
- shock
- hypothermia
What are the four primary types of tissue?
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
Parvovirus causes:
- Feline panleukopenia
- Canine parvoviral enteritis
- Virus attacks and kills cells that are continually renewing themselves like epithelial tissue
Parvovirus treatment:
IV fluid therapy with electrolytes
Antibiotics
Anti-vomiting medication
