Introduction to A&P Flashcards
name the 9 regions on the surface anatomy of the abdomen
- right hypochondrium
- epigastrium
- left hypochondrium
- left lumbar region
- umbilical region
- left lumbar region
- right iliac region
- hypogastrium
- left iliac region
state the organs beneath each of the 9 regions of the surface anatomy of the abdomen
- right hypochondrium -> liver, gallbladder
- epigastrium -> stomach, liver
- left hypochondrium -> spleen, stomach
- right lumbar region -> right kidney, intestine
- umbilical region -> intestinal region
- left lumbar region -> left kidney, intestine
- right iliac region -> appendix, intestines, ovaries
- hypogastrium -> urinary bladder, uterus
- left iliac region -> intestines, ovaries
how are anatomical positions characterised by?
- face looking forward
- arms by sides with palms forward
- feet together with toes forward
what is the name of the anatomical position faced up?
supine
what is the name of the anatomical position faced down?
prone
remember: ‘prone’ sounds like ‘bone’, showing the back bone to the doctor
what is the name of the front surface of the body called in directional terms?
Anterior
remember: ‘A’ sounds like AH = mouth = front
what is the name of the back surface of the body called in directional terms?
Dorsal/ Posterior
remember: P for 屁股 = back
what is the name of the direction towards the head?
superior/ cranial
what is the name of the direction towards the tail (coccyx of the spine)?
inferior/ caudal
what is the name of the direction closer to the midline of the body?
medial
what is the name of the direction further away from the midline of the body?
lateral
what is the meaning of proximal?
is nearer to the body as compared to.
e.x shoulder is proximal to elbow
what is the meaning of distal?
is further to the body as compared to.
ex. elbow is distal to the shoulder.
what is the directional terms for near to the surface?
superficial
what is the directional term for further from the surface?
deep
what are the 3 body planes?
- sagittal
- transverse
- coronal/ frontal
explain the sagittal plane
divides the body into left and right
remember: S for left and right
explain the transverse plane
divides the body into superior and inferior
remember: T for up and down
explain the coronal/ frontal plane
divides the body into anterior and posterior (front and back)
what does the failure of homeostasis lead to?
- improper function of cells
- destruction of cells
- cell death -> tissue death -> organ dysfunction -> illness, death
what are some variables maintained by homeostasis?
- body temperature: 36.5°C - 37.5°C
- blood pressure: 90/60 - 130/85
- plasma glucose level: 70-110 mg/dl
- blood pH: 7.35-7.45
how is the regulation mechanism maintained by?
a loop called feedback; made up of the receptor, control centre and the effector
what do the receptors do?
-detects changes in the variable, convey the changes to the control centre.
ex. skin receptors sense the changes in cold/hot/ pressure and convey the information to the central nervous system.
what does the control centre do?
- receives information from the receptor, determines the set point (range) at which a variable is to be maintained, send information to the effctor
ex. temperature regulatory centre acts like a thermometer
what does the effector do?
- a cell or organ that responds to the commands of the control centre, aims to restore the homeostasis by either encouraging or discouraging the stimulus.
what is the negative feedback?
Negative feedback mechanism where the variable/ stimulus is discouraged, resulting in the reduction or cessation of this process.
ex. regulation of temperature, blood pressure, glucose.
How it works (temperature) : when body temperature exceeds 37℃ -> sensors like nerve cells with endings in the skin and brain -> temperature regulatory centre in the brain -> sweat glands throughout body bring down body temperature.
(glucose): after meals, food is digested to glucose and absorbed glucose enters blood. -> increased glucose level stimulates the production of hormone insulin which pushes glucose into the cells. -> thus brings down the level of glucose achieving homeostasis.
Reversely, when starving, the glucose level in the blood reduces. -> reduced glucose level stimulates the production of glucagon which converts the storage glucose (glycogen) to glucose. -> thus brings up the glucose level, achieving homeostasis.
what is the positive feedback?
Positive feedback mechanism when the mechanism is encouraged, the process is increased.
ex. childbirth, blood clotting, breastfeeding
How this works (childbirth): Hormone oxytocin produced by the brain stimulates the
contraction of the uterus. -> This muscle contraction produces pain sensed by the nervous system. -> Instead of lowering the oxytocin and the pain, more oxytocin is produced until the contractions are powerful enough to produce childbirth.
