Introduction

Question 1

endosymbiosis

Answer 1

During evolution, a eukaryotic organism, already equipped with adequate cytoskeleton and internal membrane systems for this purpose, engulfed/phagocytosed a prokaryotic organism and they started to live together for their mutual benefit.
Mitochondria came about when an aerobic prokaryote performing oxidative phosphorylation was internalized, chloroplasts derived from prokaryotes performing photosynthesis. The origin of peroxisomes is similar.

Question 2

central dogma

Answer 2

In living systems, the flow of genetic information is unidirectional and follows the path: DNA → RNA → protein → property (phenotype).

Question 3

transcription

Answer 3

The process in the nucleus by which the genetic information contained in a template strand of DNA is copied into a single-stranded RNA molecule of complementary base sequence (primary/ nascent transcript or preRNA or hnRNA).
Transcription is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. This is the first step in gene expression

Question 4

exon

Answer 4

Exons are sequences of genes that code part of or the entire gene product.
In eukaryotes, the exons are separated by non-coding sequences called introns.
During transcription, the introns are also transcribed as messenger RNAs, but are subsequently cut out from the transcript before translation.

Question 5

intron

Answer 5

A nucleotide sequence in a gene that does not participate in encoding the protein product.
Introns occurring in eukaryotes are transcribed in messenger RNS, but are subsequently removed from the transcript before translation.

Question 6

RNA maturation

Answer 6

Post-transcriptional modifications in eukaryotic cells by which primary transcript RNA is converted into mature RNA. The process includes three major steps:
1) addition of a 5’ end capping,
2)addition of a 3’ poly-adenylation tail and
3)RNA splicing.

Question 7

RNA splicing

Answer 7

A post-transcriptional process by which introns are removed and exons are covalently joined to one another as part of generating the mature messenger RNA.
In the case of multi-exon genes (i.e., genes containing several exons) exons can be joined in different combinations, leading to different (alternative) matured mRNA strands. Consequently, the proteins translated from alternatively spliced mRNAs will contain differences in their amino acid sequence and, often,
in their biological functions. Alternative splicing allows a single gene to code for multiple proteins.

Question 8

5’ end capping

Answer 8

A post-transcriptional process by which a specially altered nucleotide (7-methylguanosine tri- or polyphosphate) is added to the 5′ end of the primary RNA transcripts to protect the mRNA from degradation by RNases.
It is a part of RNA maturation process.

Question 9

poly (A) tailing

Answer 9

A post-transcriptional process by which ~ 200 adenine bases are attached to the 3’end of the synthesized primary RNA transcripts.
It is a part of the RNA maturation process.
The poly(A) tail is important for the nuclear export, translation, and stability of mRNA.

Question 10

translation, genetic code

Answer 10

The process in the cytoplasm by which a polypeptide chain is synthesized from an mRNA molecule containing the genetic information.
In the cytoplasm, the ribosome reads the sequence of the mRNA bases as triplets.
The genetic code describes the relationship between the base triplets and the corresponding amino acids in the polypeptide.

Question 11

metabolism

Answer 11

The coordinated processes of material uptake, conversion of materials and excretion of substances taking place between the living system and its environment, which provides the living being with adequate building materials and energy.

Question 12

aerobic

Answer 12

A process that requires the presence of oxygen in the air or a living organism whose metabolism requires oxygen

Question 13

anaerobic

Answer 13

A process that does not require oxygen to happen or a living organism that does not require oxygen for its metabolism.

Question 14

heterotroph

Answer 14

An organism that synthetizes ATP by degradation of organic material produced by other organisms.
ATP is used to produce the organism’s own organic compounds and to carry out other cellular processes.
All animals, protozoans, fungi, and most bacteria are heterotrophs.

Question 15

autotroph

Answer 15

An organism which uses the sunlight as energy sources (photosynthetic organism) or produces ATP molecules by simple oxidative processes (chemosynthetic organism).
The produced ATP molecules are used to create its own organic compounds by biosynthesis or to carry out other processes of the cells.
Plants and certain bacteria are autotroph

Question 16

glycolysis

Answer 16

The glycolysis is a series of enzyme-catalyzed catabolic reactions in the cytosol of the cells, in which sugars, especially glucose, are partially degraded.
The energy released from the process
is stored in ATP molecules (and NADH).
Two pyruvate molecules and a net gain of two ATP molecules are created from one glucose molecule.
(Pyruvate is fermented into lactic acid or ethanol in the absence of oxygen, otherwise it can enter into the tricarboxylic acid cycle.)

Question 17

oxidative phosphorylation

Answer 17

During the so-called terminal oxidation catabolic products (mainly the products of glycolysis),
protons accumulate outside the inner membrane of mitochondrion and flow back to the matrix of the mitochondrion across specific proton channels of ATP synthase (F0F1 ATPase) enzymes,
and the released energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Question 18

prokaryote

Answer 18

The cell in which there is no real cell nucleus separated from the cytosol by a nuclear membrane.
The genetic material of the cell is found in the cell plasma, there are no cell membrane bound organelles or cytoskeleton.
Bacteria and cyanobacteria are prokaryotes.

Question 19

eukaryote

Answer 19

Those living organisms that have in their cells a nucleus separated by a membrane from the cell plasma, have a structured internal membrane system (nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, etc.) and cytoskeleton. Most of the organisms belong to this group (unicellular eukaryotes, plants, animals, fungi).

Question 20

primary biogenic elements

Answer 20

Primary biogenic elements include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P).
They constitute 98% of the cells, which is explained by the fact that these elements form the bulk of the organic matter of living organisms, and H and O also form water.

Question 21

secondary biogenic elements

Answer 21

The proportion of secondary biogenic elements in cells is about. 2%.
This group includes, among others, sulfur (S), iron (Fe), chlorine (Cl), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca)

Question 22

organic substances

Answer 22

Compounds formed by joining several carbon atoms. Organic substances of high energy content formed through metabolism in living organisms include carbohydrates, fats and proteins

Question 23

amino acids

Answer 23

Molecules containing amino and carboxyl groups. In α-amino acids, the amino group is attached to the α-carbon of the carboxylic acid chain.
The proteins of most living cells are built from 20 different α-amino acids.

Question 24

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Answer 24

The hereditary material of cells is constructed of two polynucleotide chains, which form a double-helix structure. In the nucleotides constituting the DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose and the nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T).
In the helix, the two chains are bound together by hydrogen bonds formed between the complementary bases (see base pairing; between A and T there are two hydrogen bonds between G and C there are three).
The base order of one strand clearly defines the other.
DNA molecules differ in the base sequence of the polynucleotide chains.
The role of DNA is the storage of information and its transmission into the daughter cells, as well as the indirect control of protein synthesis

Question 25

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Answer 25

A polymer molecule composed of ribonucleotide units. In the nucleotides constituting RNA, the sugar is ribose and the nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and uracil (U).
The major types of RNA molecules are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal (rRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA).
The function of mRNAs is to transmit the genetic information from DNA to proteins.
1)mRNAs are produced upon the process of transcription. 2)rRNAs together with ribosomal proteins build the ribosomes.
3)tRNAs are involved in translation, transporting amino acids to the ribosomes and decoding the genetic information from mRNA to proteins.
4)SnRNAs are involved in mRNA splicing.
5)Other RNA types such as small interfering RNA (siRNA or silencing RNA) and microRNA (miRNA) are involved in the regulation of gene expression.
6)RNA viruses have genomes composed of RNA.

Question 26

lipids

Answer 26

Organic compounds formed in living organisms with varying composition and structure that have a common feature that they are well soluble in apolar solvents.
Hydrolysable lipids include neutral fats and phospholipids. Neutral fats are built from glycerol and three fatty acid molecules, while phospholipids also contain a polar part formed by phosphoric acid and an alcohol molecule. Steroids and poly-isoprenoids (e.g., carotenoids) belong to the group of nonhydrolyzable lipids