Introducing Qualitative Research

Question 1

Qualitative research

Answer 1

Concerned with understanding the meaning of phenomenon

Quantitative is concerned with understanding the cause

Qualitative research should be credible (internally valid), transferable (externally valid), dependability (reliability) & confirmability (objectivity)

Question 2

Wertz (2014); history of qualitative research

Answer 2

Aristotle’s inquiry’s were qualitative

Darwin’s comparable investigation of emotions & moral sense

Freud used case studies

Piaget, Vygotsky, Bartlett, Zimbardo & Festinger

Kahneman won noble prize

Question 3

Michell (2003); quantitative imperative

Answer 3

View that studying something scientifically means measuring it

Measurement is thought to be necessary part of science & non-quantitative methods are thought to be pre-scientific

This imperative is motivated by idea that all attributes are fundamentally quantitative

Question 4

A version of the Kelvin Dictum

Answer 4

When you can not measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is a meagre & unsatisfactory kind

Question 5

Michell (2009)

Answer 5

Most quantitative research is based on fact that psych attributes can be measured in quantitative way rather than empirical investigation of issue

Most quantitative researchers adopt a thinking that measurement is simply assignment of numbers to objects & events according to specific rules

Question 6

Harre (2004)

Answer 6

Social & cognitive phenomena can be represented discursively (words/qualitatively)

Question 7

Qualitative research as a paradigm

Answer 7

1) Assume there’s no one correct version of reality or knowledge (theres multiple)
2) claims knowledge must not be considered outside of context in which its generalised
3) focus on analysis of words that are not reducible to numbers
4) interested in meaning rather than reports & measuring of behaviour or internal cognitions
5) use of inductive, theory generating theory
6) anti-experimental setting
7) rejection of natural sciences as model of research
8) recognise researcher comes from subjective position

Question 8

Broad differences between qualitative & quantitative

Answer 8

1) numbers vs words
2) shallow broad data vs narrow rich data
3) deductive theory testing vs inductive theory generating
4) values objectivity vs subjectivity
5) fixed method vs less fixed method
6) quickly completed vs longer time

Question 9

Ontology

Answer 9

The form of reality

What can be known about reality?

Question 10

Epistemology

Answer 10

The relationship between the investigatory & what can be discovered

How can we know?

Positivism to post-positivism

Question 11

Methodology

Answer 11

How does the investigator go about finding out what they believe can be discovered?

Quantitative to qualitative

Question 12

Ontology continuum

Answer 12

Realism -> critical realism -> relativism

Realism= pre-social reality exists that we can access through research (quantitative)

Critical realism; pre-social reality exists but we can only ever partially know it

Relativism; reality is dependent on the ways we come to know it

Question 13

Research bias

Answer 13

Research bias fundamentally about trustworthiness/credibility

Question 14

How to deal with research bias

Answer 14

Reflectivity; constantly thinking about potential biases & how you can minimise their effect

Negative-case sampling; attempt to locate & examine case that disconfirm your expectation

Question 15

Can demonstrate trustworthiness by

Answer 15

Descriptive validity; shoe that what collected & observes is accurate e.g. multiple investigators

Interpretative validity; how accurate your interpretations portrait what the thinking & feeling of the pp e.g. pp check

Theoretical validity; going beyond concrete description & interpretation to explain succinctly the most amount of data e.g. multiple theories

Question 16

Methodological integrity

Answer 16

1) fidelity to subject matter
2) utility in achieving research goals- selecting procedures to generate insightful findings that usefully answer their research questions

Question 17

Subjectivity

Answer 17

Our humanness (subjectivity) should be part of research tool

Research seen as subjective process, cannot cast aside out values, mannerisms etc when doing research

Question 18

Reflexivity

Answer 18

Requires awareness of researchers contribution to construction of meanings throughout research process

Acknowledgement of impossibility of remaining outside of ones subject matter while researching

Question 19

Developing a rationale for quantitative research

Answer 19

General-> logical story leading to hypothesis -> specific

Question 20

Developing rationale for qualitative research

Answer 20

Specific aim-> tell story that contextualises question -> general

Question 21

Methods of collecting qualitative data

Answer 21

1) full interactive methods- interviews (semi-structured) focus groups
2) vignettes
3) story completion task

Question 22

Designing a qualitative interview schedule

Answer 22

Brainstorm relevant questions

Opening introducing question & closing clean-up question

Sequence questions (logic flow, cluster topics)

Avoid leading questions

Question 23

When & why we use focus groups

Answer 23

1) Generate unexpected/novel knowledge
2) open, supportive environment
3) interaction between pp
4) mimic real life
5) diverse views, perspectives or understanding
6) accessing under-represented or marginalised social groups

Question 24

Issues with focus groups

Answer 24

Pp- homogeneity vs heterogeneity, depends on issue

Sample size- 3-8 pp works best

Saturation- criteria for deciding no more focus group needed, more data wouldn’t contribute to study (no more new perspectives)

Question 25

What to do in focus group

Answer 25

Need to create map to chart course within session (plan)

To generate discussion between pp

Often use stimulus material (e.g. images, exercises)

Question 26

Vignettes

Answer 26

Presenting pp with completed story & asking them to respond to series of open ended questions about stories

Must appear plausible & real

Should reflect mundane occurrences

Contain sufficient context for understanding but vague enough to force pp to provide additional factors which influence their decisions

Question 27

Story completion task

Answer 27

Pp complete or write story

Aims to understand something about the meanings pp construct of reality by the stories they tell

Ideal for researching topics where clear norms dictate social desirable viewpoints

Ideally suited to comparative research design- can compare responses of different groups

Question 28

Sampling strategies

Answer 28

Quantitative research- random sample, aim for generalisability

Qualitative- purposive, aim for insight/understanding

Sampling about criteria for inclusion & exclusion (heterogeneity, homogeneity or both)

Question 29

Common sampling techniques in qualitative research

Answer 29

1) convenience- pp accessible to researcher
2) snowballing- networking of researcher or pp
3) stratification- ensures diversity/range of groups
4) theoretical- selection governed by on-going research, what’s required to gain further insight
5) criterion- specific event or issue

Question 30

Thematic analysis

Answer 30

Method for identifying, analysing, organising, describing & reporting themes found within data set

Question 31

Code

Answer 31

Read transcripts & note down short comments to sum up segments of data, usually in margins of transcript

Question 32

Theme

Answer 32

Captures something important about data in relation to research questions

Represents some level of patterned response or meaning within data set

Question 33

Six steps to analysis

Answer 33

1) familiarisation/ immersion with data- analytic, active, critical
2) generation of initial codes- systematic, manifest (objective, surface, concrete) vs latent (implicit, hidden meaning) content
3) generating themes- collate codes into themes, hierarchy of themes
4) review themes- sub-themes, patterns
5) define & name themes- ensure themes don’t overlap, meaningful hierarchy
6) produce report- evidence of themes

Question 34

Qualitative report structure

Answer 34

1) joint results & discussion section
2) sub-sectioned by themes
3) see examples for how to deal with data
4) coherent & persuasive argument
5) general discussion section
6) summing up