introducing pschology Flashcards
(291 cards)
1
Q
definition of psychology
A
the systematic study of behaviors and mental processes of individuals.
2
Q
who are psychologists and what do they do?
A
psychologists are basic and applied distinction, they do many different psychologies
3
Q
what are the 4 basic themes of psychology
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empirical, unaware of causes of our own behavior, individual and group differences, and behavior is multi-caused
4
Q
major psychology perspectives
A
behavior, cognitive, neuroscience, evolution, psychodynamic, humanistic, and sociocultural
5
Q
behaviorism
A
helped psychology become a science, leaning principals are the same for all animals, focus on objective measurements, behaviors not inside mind, emphasizes environment and learning history instead of genetics.
6
Q
people associated to behavior
A
Pavlov, Watson, skinner
7
Q
cognitive
A
thoughts, memories, thoughts of perception, objectively measure (do experiments on and see results with)
8
Q
neuroscience
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genetic approach, regions of brain, working of neurons, role of neurotransmitters
9
Q
evolution
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behavior provided reproductive behavior
10
Q
psychodynamic
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freud, motivation of sex and aggression, influence on personality and developmental psychology
11
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humanistic
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self-actualization (what you as a person desire)
12
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main people in humanistic approach
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Abraham maslow and carl rogers
13
Q
sociocultural
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influence of society and culture
14
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theories
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helps guide research, broad, tested multiple times, cant be proven
15
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hypothesis
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if…then statements, testable, specific
16
Q
case study
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spands over long period of time, use experiments
17
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observational studies
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performed in natural settings
18
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issues of observational studies
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hard to determine causation, bias/easy to deceive
19
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correlation
A
set of observations on 2 variables, defines association between 2 variables, quantitative measure
20
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advantage of correlations
A
useful for prediction, correlation coefficient
21
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disadvantage of correlation
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correlation does not imply causation
22
Q
what does “correlation does not imply causation” mean?
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just because 2 variables get together doesn’t mean it causes.
23
Q
confounding variables
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not held constant across all levels(groups) if the independent variable
24
Q
why does the cofounding variable matter?
A
because it destroys internal validity
25
Main effect
making a general statement about 1 variable alone, averaging across the other variables
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Experimenter effect
when the experiment unintentionally creates bias in the experiment
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why does the experimenter effect matter?
because it creates bias
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single-blind experiment
when participants don't know hypothesis/ what group they're in
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why does single-blind experiments matter?
because it reduces bias
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interaction
when dependent variable is effected by a combination of 2 or more independent variables
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multifactor study
more than 1 factor
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double-blind experiment
when both researcher and participants that are unaware which group they are in
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internal validity
when change in dependent variable is results of independent variable
**(most important)
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external validity
when results generalize broadly to other situations/people
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* operational definition
makes things applicable and measureable
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random assignment
each person has equal chance of being in each level of independent variables (not the same as random sampling)
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experiments
measures the effects on randomly assigned subjects
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experimenter bias
when experimenter unintentionally bring bias into an experiment, destroying internal validity (one group is treated differently than other group)
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single-blind experiments
participants don't know hypothesis
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double-blind experiments
experimenters and participants are "blind" to conditions
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why have single-blind and double-blind experiments?
to minimize effect/ to reduce contact between experimenter and participants
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what is the purpose of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
evaluates all research proposals before the start if the experiment.
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informed consent and anonymity
participants sign form that is told about experiment
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debriefing
gives participants full story after experiment
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learning
relatively permanent change in performance potential brought about by experience
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behaviorist perspective
best understood by environmental factors
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classical conditioning
a neural object that can elicit a response through associations with another stimulus that automatically elicits a response.
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example of classical conditioning
ivan pavlovs dogs
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basic paradigm that occurs naturally
unconditional stimulus, unconditional response
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basic paradigm that occurs with training
conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
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stimulus generalization
response generalizes to similar stimuli
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stimulus discrimination
lessened or no response to a somewhat different stimulus than the one that was conditioned / can differentiate between stimuli
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extinction
stop pairing cs with ucs and the response will extinguish
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when is extinction useful
useful if a negative emotional response (in therapy)
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spontaneous recovery
pair cs with ucs again and response will return
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single- trial learning
one pairing of a cs with a ucs is enough to learn to avoid food
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what are the 3 food aversions
1) single- trial learning
2) delay of hours
3) smell of taste
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operant conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher
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consequences
behavior from environment, will effect likelihood response in future.
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reinforcement
strengthens response (influences behavior)
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positive reinforcement
increase In behavior by administering a stimulus (reward)addition of a positive stimulus
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negative reinforcement
increase in behavior by removing a stimulus ( still strengthens response) -removal of negative stimulus
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punishment
not nice behavior and behavior decreases (reduces behavior)
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positive punishment
decrease in behavior by administering a stimulus
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negative punishment
decreases behavior by removing a stimulus
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premack principle
more frequent behavior can reinforce less frequent behavior
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contiguity
the delay for punishment
| (short time) increases learning- but, life success and delay gratification
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who studied operant conditioning
B.F. Skinner
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2 types of punishment
conditioned for punishment to be effective and drawbacks to using punishment
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shaping
an operant conditioning procedure reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations to desired behavior (ex: clapping for girl to touch periodic table)
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continuous reinforcement
operant occurs most rapidly when a reinforce is given reward right after response (ex: ATM machine or coke machine) - faster extinction
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partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement (ex: asking someone out, gambling)
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4 main schedules of partial reinforcement
fixed-ratio
fixed-interval
variable-ratio
variable-interval
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fixed-ratio
reinforcement given after set # of responses
| ex: free coffee after you bought 10
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fixed-interval
reinforcement given for 1st response that occurs after set period of time has elapsed.
(ex: mail, paychecks,study habits)
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variable-ratio
reinforcement given after varying responses (ex: sales job, slot machines, video games)
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variable-interval
1st response after varying period of time elapsed (ex: fishing, calling back after very busy signal)
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ratio
rewards are paid out according to the # of desired # of behavior that the subject has produced.
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intervals
rewards according to amount of time that has passed, as long as the subject has produced at least 1 instance of the desired behavior during that time.
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skinner box
device to control delivery of reinforcers and punishers "operant chamber"
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2 main principles of operant conditioning
1) behavior is controlled by consequences-behavior that is followed by a favorable consequence (reinforcer) be epeated, behavior favored by unfavorable consequence (punisher) decrease I frequency
2) positive punishment is behavior followed by arrival of a pleasant event- reinforcement, behavior followed by ending of unpleasant event - reinforcement strengthens behavior it follows, so not the same as punishment
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drawbacks
negative emotion like anxiety
often must monitor behavior (may encourage sneaky behavior such as lying)
does not say what people should do
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generalization
just like with classical conditioning (ex: "dada" all men or "doggie" for all animals)
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discrimination
the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
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discriminative stimulus
cue or context informs you that you will be rewarded/punished (ex: police car- slowing down you wont get a ticket)
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primary reinforcers
naturally are reinforcing (food, warmth, shelter, touch) - fill biological need
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secondary reinforcers
associations with primary reinforcers ( money, praise, trophies, facebook "likes") due to classical conditioning
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biological constraints
you cant teach every type of animal any behavior. (raccoons wont drop a coin in a bank, my dog will chase squirrels - so it would be hard to tell them not to chase it)
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instinctive drift
animals conditioned behavior reverts to genetic patterns
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observational learning
learning by witnessing others behavior - no direct reinforcement but vicarious reinforcement (ex: bobo doll)
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latent (hidden) learning
new behavior is learned not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it. (rats and cognitive maps)
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3 themes of memory
1) memory is active and constructed rather than passive
2) multiple memory system exists
3) memory accuracy can be effective by many factors
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memory process
encoding>storage>retrieval
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encoding
getting info in memory
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storage
maintenance of material
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retrieval
getting info out of memory system to use
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sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system
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2 types of declarative memory
episodic memory, semantic memory
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episodic memory
memory for your own personal life experience
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semantic memory
memory for knowledge about world
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procedural memory
doing things
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short-term memory (STM)
activated memory that holds a few items briefly (7 digit phone # while dialing)- before info is stored or forgotten
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working memory
newer understanding of STM that focus on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial info, and of info retrieved from long-term memory (reasoning & decision making)
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memory span
amount of info stored in STM
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chunking
grouping info together
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systematic encoding
semantic, ryme, visual
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implicit memory
without intention or awareness
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echoic memory
stores auditory info coming from ears
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iconic memory
reflects info from our visual system
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cues
help you "travel" around the associative network
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what are the 2 retrieval tasks
recall, recognition
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recall
retrieve info learned earlier (short-answer, essay, fill in the blank )- clues
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recognition
identify items previously learned (multiple choice, matching, true/false) -all possible answers
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how to retrieve info more successfully
cues, targeted practice, state-dependent learning
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state-dependent memory
experiencing the same internal state during encoding & retrieval also can enhance memory (matching study patterns to test conditions)
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interference
proactive, retroactive
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proactive
old interfere with new
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retroactive
new interfere with old
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serial position effects
primacy, recency
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primacy
remembering first items better
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recency
remembering last items better
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memory
is a collection of fragments of info based on sensory impressions at the time we encoded the memory
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retrieve info
reconstruct memory for the episode
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false memory
remembering something that didn't actually happen
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misattribution
distortions based on confusing the source of the info
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suggestibility
distortions introduced by misinformation from outside sources
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source confusion (source amnesia)
where we attribute a particular memory item to the wrong source
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misinformation effect
when our memory of a past event can be changed by new info presented long after the original memory was formed.
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amnesia
loss of memory
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retrograde amnesia
memory I lost for occurrences prior to a certain event
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anterograde amnesia
loss of memory occurs for events following an injury
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cerebellum
plays a role in processing and storing of implicit memory
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components of neuron
dendrite, axon, myelin sheath, terminal buttons (branches of axon), synapse
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dendrite
receives info, takes it to cell body
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axon
passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles, and glands.
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myelin sheath
covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses.
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terminal buttons (braches of axon)
end of axon, release chemicals called neurotransmitters
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synapse
space between neurons
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cell body
the cells life- support center
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neurotransmitters
cross the synapse, increase or decrease the likelihood of neurons firing
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important neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine(ach), dopamine, serotonin, endorphins
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acetylcholine (ACH)
neurons connecting to muscles (cant move muscle without it)
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location of (ACH)
everywhere
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effect of (ACH)
excitatory in brain and autonomic nervous system
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function of (ACH)
muscle movement (memory) - people with Alzheimer's disease have low (ACH) in their brain
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location of dopamine
brain
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effect of dopamine
Inhibitory or excitatory
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functions o dopamine
muscle disorders, mental disorders like schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease : low dopamine in parkinsons disease and high dopamine in schizophrenia
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serotonin
involved with mood regulations
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location of serotonin
brain, spinal cord
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effect of serotonin
inhibitory
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function of serotonin
sleeping, eating, mood depression, and pain
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endorphins
bodys own heroine
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location of endorphins
brain, spinal cord
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effect of endorphins
primarily inhibitory
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functions of endorphins
pain suppression, pleasurable feelings, "runners high"
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what are the 4 different methods to study the brain
EEG, PET scan, FMRI scan, CT scan
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EEG
amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping across
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PET scan
visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose
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FMRI
released when brain becomes active it uses more oxygen. it enables scientists to detect and view these variations in oxygen use.- brain areas that are using more oxygen light up in red, orange, and yellow.
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CT scan
x-rays
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central nervous system
brain, spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
somatic, autonomic
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somatic division
neurons under voluntary control, attached to skeletal muscles
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autonomic division
controls glands, organs, blood vessels automatically; sympathetic, parasympathetic
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sympathetic
arouses body (fight or flight)
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parasympathetic
calms down body (rest and digest)
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contralateral transmission
info generally crosses from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain.
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corpus callosum
provides pathway for communication between the two hemispheres
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reuptake
neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons
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hemisphere specialization
the difference between the left and right hemispheres
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left hemisphere
language, logical thought, math; does the speaking
| -processes sequentially
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right hemisphere
spatial, visual tasks (recognizing faces or patterns) , emotional expression; cant speak
-processes globally or holistically
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split-brain research
helps to understand the brain in detail
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hippocrates
greek physician who left many text on brain surgery
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brain stem
controls essential physiological functions such as heart rate, respiration, and body temp.
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hypothalamus
key role in motivated behaviors, including eating, fighting and sex.
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broca
scientist who has studied stroke victims who have lost the ability to speak. he examined their brains after they died. he realized that the stroke had caused the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain was damaged.
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brocas area
generates spoken and written language
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awake craniotomy
a procedure to map the human brain in detail. surgeon would remove portion of skull to expose area of brain then allow patient to wake up and then surgeon would stimulate an area of the brain then ask patients stimulation
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lower brain structures
reticular formation, cerebellum, medulla, pons, thalamus
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reticular formation
filters incoming stimuli and helps regulate arousal and alertness
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cerebellum
coordinates balance and movement, and processes some sensory input
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medulla
controls heartbeat, breathing, and other vital functions
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pons
relays messages between the cerebellum and the cortex to help coordinate movement
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thalamus
"Sensory Switchboard"relays sensory messages to the cortex, and then replies to the cerebellum and the medulla
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the cerebral cortex
outer surface of the upper part f the brain, its 4 lobes contain the bodys ultimate control centers and info processing areas.
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frontal lobe
controls muscle movement and production of speech, is involved in making plans and judgments
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temporal lobe
receives and processes auditory info from ears
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occipital lobe
receives and processes visual info from eyes
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parietal lobe
receives and processes sensory info from skin and body senses
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auditory cortex
in temporal lobe and processes info from ears
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motor cortex
in frontal lobe, controls voluntary muscle movement
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visual cortex
in occipital lobe, processes info from eyes
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angular gyrus
involved in reading, converts writing into auditory code
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wernickes area
comprehends spoken and written language
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sensory cortex
in parietal lobe, processes skin and body sensation
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functional specialization
each function or capability of the nervous system is controlled by a specific cluster of neurons (neural network) in a specific area of the brain
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complex communication
each neural network is interconnected with and influenced by other networks in other regions of the brain
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procedural memory
memory for specific motions such as dance steps or swinging a tennis racket: cerebellum, one explanation for infantile amnesia
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midbrain
small area where brain stem thins out above the pons. separates the lower portion of the brain (hindbrain) and the upper portion of the brain (forebrain)
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limbic system
interconnected structures from the old brain. involved in emotion and certain forms of memory.
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3 important structures of the limbic system
hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus
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hippocampus
memory for factual knowledge and events (if damaged you would loose ability to make memories)
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amygdala
influences aggression and fear
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hypothalamus
contains neurons that regulate hunger, thirst, body temp, and sexual behavior. main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system.
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pituitary gland
influences hormone release by other glands
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cerebral hemisphere
part of brain you would see if top of skull removed, allows higher processing power for complex mental tasks
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clinical psychologists
studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
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psychiatrists
provide medicine to people with psychological disorders as well as psychological therapy
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psychotherapists
use treatments involving psychological techniques; interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or to achieve personal growth.
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independent variable (IV)
the experimental factor that is being MANIPULATED; whose effect is being studied.
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Dependent variable (DV)
BEING MEASURED, variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
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correlational research
correlation does not equal causation
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correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things
216
Gate control theory of pain
small fibers conduct pain, messages along large fibers can close the gate- application of new pain solutions. theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass onto the brain."Gate" opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers.
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pain
unpleasant sensory or emotional experience.- warns us about actual or potential tissue damage
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trichromatic theories of color perception
3 kinds of cones sensitive to different wavelengths -red, blue, green; color blindness
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opponent process theory
opposing retinal processes enable color vision. ganglion cells work in opposing fashion.
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top-down processing
using beliefs, expectations, and emotions to construct perception
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bottom-up processing
taking info from senses and putting them together
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transduction
receptor cells for all of the senses
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adaptation
flexible systems that are especially sensitive to changes over time
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sensation
conversion of a stimulus to neural impulses -(sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell)- how we take info about the world
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perception
INTERPRETING stimuli and making new sense of them -anything that activates or sensation system
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automatic processing
without awareness or control ( auto pilot) ex: when your driving home instead of driving to your friends house
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controlled processing
requires more effort
228
consciousness
awareness of the sensation,thoughts and feelings being experienced at a given moment
229
why do we sleep?
brain restoration and repair, secrete growth hormones, conserve energy, memory storage
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what are dreams according to Freud?
dreams are the "royal road to the unconscious"
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the Psychodynamic or Freudian perspective of dreaming
the interplay of inner mental forces, people have both conscious and unconscious motives, these motives can conflict with one another.
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dream meaning
manifest content and latent content
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manifest content
actual events
234
latent content
(symbolic content) unconscious wish or motivation
235
problem focused approach
dreams reflect current concerns and sometimes how to resolve them - especially survival related ideas
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activation synthesis theory
random activity of portions of the brain including old memories, which we woven into a current story line. ex: parts of the brain associated with balance are activated- you may be dreaming about flying.
237
sleep disturbances
insomnia, sleep deprivation, narcolepsy, sleep walking, and night terrors.
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what are 2 major parts of being hypnotized?
relaxation & limited suggestibility
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what does hypnosis never enhance?
memory
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effects of hypnosis
post- hypnotic suggestion and amnesia; hallucinations- taking suggestions from hypnotists negatively- taking away -pain removal
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2 theories of hypnosis
neodissociation theory & sociocognitive approach
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neodissociation theory
splitting of consciousness. part of mind enters and altered state of consciousness (hidden observer)
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sociocognitive approach
more of a social thing, social influence of hypnotist combined with expectations of the subject. playing the role when the actor "becomes" the part of the hypnotized person. not faking, but not at a completely different state of consciousness.
244
EEG stages of sleep
waking - beta, alpha waves
nREM sleep- 70-80% of sleep; Theta, delta waves
REM sleep- resembles beta (awake), where dreams happen
245
REM (rapid eye movement)
eyes moving under eye lids ( sexually aroused without having sex) - infants form neural connection
246
stages of sleep
1) small and irregular brain waves, visual images
2) bursts of rapid waves (spindles)
3) occasional delta waves, deeper sleep
4) deepest sleep, mostly delta waves, walking or talking during sleep happens at this stage
247
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically - triggers a response(UR)
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unconditioned response
an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salvation) to an unconditioned stimulus(US) (such as food in the mouth)
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conditioned stimulus
an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a response.
250
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
251
availability vs. accessibility
memory exists (is available) but may not be accessible. "tip of the tongue"
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key features of language
communicative, arbitrary (any symbol will do), structure (grammar) is important, multiplicity of structure, generative, dynamic (evolving)
253
heuristics
mental short cut that help you make a fast decision, which usually tend to be accurate.
254
phonemes
small destructive sound units in a language
255
morphemes
smallest units that carry meaning in a given language
256
grammar
system of rules that enables us to communicate with one another
257
availability heuristics
judge frequency of an event on what comes to mind easily
258
anchoring and adjustments
over-reliance on preexisting judgments
259
framing
how we approach gains and losses
260
Representativeness heuristics
ignore base-rate information and rely on stereotypes/schemas
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schemas
a fundamental building block, mental frameworks, or networks that help us organize information.
262
why do schemas affect thinking?
it is at the forefront of our mind that will be used to interpret our world.
263
6-7 universal facial expressions
happy, sad, pride, shame, embarrassed, guilt
264
cognitive dissonance
we are uncomfortable (experience unpleasant arousal) when we have inconsistent thoughts. ex: if you have sex before marriage and said you wouldn't, you would change your thought by saying its love.
265
Gardner's types of intelligence
linguistics, logical math, spatial, bodily-kinesthetics, musical, interpersonal- know myself, naturalist- connected to nature, existential
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Sternberg's 3 kinds of intelligeces
academic/ analytic; creative- adaptive, new settings and inventing; practical- less defined problems, many solutions, specific contexts and personal goals.
267
2 main IQ tests
stanford-binet and wechsler
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Stanford- binet test
a widely used american revision of an intelligence tests that determined children's mental age or age that typically corresponds to his/her level of performance.
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Wechsler test
widely used intelligence test that contains verbal and performance (non-verbal) sub tests
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Kohlberg's moral theory
pre-conventional- egocentrism, conventional-part of larger society, and post- conventional-resolving conflict between what is legal and moral
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Piagets theory of cognitive development
sensory motor (infancy), preoperational (childhood), concrete operational (later childhood), formal operational (adolescence)
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attachment theory
positive emotional bond that develops between child and its caregiver
273
difference between longitudinal research and cross-sectional research
longitudinal research- behavior of 1 or more participants, is traced as the participants age.
cross-sectional research- combine both researches then examining them over several points in time.
274
Freud's id, ego, and super ego
id-evil, ego- main character, super ego- angel
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Id
irrational component, impulsive, ruled by "pleasure principle"
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Ego
rational component, mediating, ruled by "reality principle"
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super ego
moralistic component, internalizing, parental and societal rules
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5 stages of personality
o-openness to experience- try new things
c-conscientiousness- organized, self-control
e-extraversion- excitement, social
a-agreeableness- approach people (system)
n-neuroticism- propensity to feel negative emotions
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defense mechanism
regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, denial
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regression
retreating to an infantile stage, where psychic energy remains fixated
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reaction formation
switching unacceptable impulses to opposites
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projection
distinguishing ones own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
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rationalization
offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real
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displacement
shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
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denial
refusing to believe or perceive painful realities
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projective test
personality test, provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamic
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rogers self-actualization
unconditional positive regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their feelings
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banduras self-efficiency
feeling of competence that guide our behavior and personality. ex: i feel like a good dancer so i chose to go to a dance school.
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banduras reciprocal determinism
the environment determines behavior, but behavior also determines environment (personality being changed to clubs joined)
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reliability of tests
extent to which a test yield's consistent results
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validity of tests
extent to which test measures or predicts what it is supposed to do.
