Intro to the human body Flashcards
Define Anatomy
The study of body structures.
Define Physiology
The study of body functions.
Name the levels of organisation in the body.
Chemical, Cellular, Tissues, Organs, Systems, Organism.
What makes up the chemical level?
Atoms and molecules.
What are atoms defined as?
The smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist.
What are molecules defined as?
A group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
What are cells?
The basic structural and functional unit of an organism.
What are tissues?
A group of similar cells (substances surrounding them) that perform a special function.
What are organs?
Structures composed of two or more different tissues combined to form an organ that performs a specific function.
What is an organ system?
Two or more organs that work closely together to perform the functions of a body system.
What is an organism?
Many organ systems that work together harmoniously to perform the functions of an independent organism.
Name the 11 body systems
Digestive, Respiratory, Nervous, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Muscular, Urinary, Skeletal, Integumentary, Endocrine, Reproductive.
Main organs of the digestive system?
Esophagus, stomach, intestines, Salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas.
Main organs of the Respiratory system?
Pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), nose + nasal cavity, oral cavity, trachea, Primary bronchus, lungs
Main organs of the Nervous system?
Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin).
Main organs of the Cardiovascular system?
Heart, blood, blood vessels.
Main organs of the lymphatic system?
Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic fluid, spleen, thymus.
Main organs of the Muscular System?
Skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles, tendons.
Main organs of the Urinary System?
Kidneys, urethra, ureters, Bladder.
Main organs of the skeletal system?
Bones, ligaments, joints, cartilage, bone marrow.
Main organs of the integumentary system?
Hair, skin and associated glands, nails.
Main organs of the endocrine system?
Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries, testis.
Main organs of the Reproductive system?
fallopian tubes, mammary glands, ovaries, uterus, vagina, ductus (vas) deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate gland, penis, testes.
Two functions of the Digestive system.
The physical and chemical breakdown of food so it can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
The elimination of waste.
Two functions of the Respiratory system.
Delivers air to the alveoli of the lungs.
Gas exchange- alveoli take up o2so that cells can make ATP and heat. Alveoli also eliminate waste gas CO2.
Inhalation and exhalation aids venous return.
Aids acid/base balance (HCO3- + H+ – H2O + CO2)
Protects us from pollutants and microorganisms we inhale through mucous membranes, cilia, sneezing, coughing.
Nose and upper respiratory passages filter, moisten and warm or cool air.
Two functions of the Nervous system.
Detects and responds to external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands through nerve impulses.
Rapid control of body systems.
Coordinates activities of other organ systems.
Two functions of the Cardiovascular system.
Transports o2, co2, other nutrients to tissues throughout the body.
Regulates body temperature and water balance (osmolarity).
Two functions of the Lymphatic system.
Protects against disease by defending against foreign organisms.
Returns tissue fluid to the blood.
Two functions of the Urinary system.
Filters the blood and excretes waste products in the urine.
Regulates fluid, electrolytes, acid/base balance.
Two functions of the Muscular system.
Locomotion (movement)- works with the skeletal system to facilitate movement.
Maintains posture.
Generates heat that is necessary to maintain a constant body temperature.
Two functions of the Skeletal system.
Keeps the body upright and provides structure and framework that muscles use to facilitate movement. Protects and supports the internal organs. Stores minerals (99% of the body's calcium), (85% of the body's phosphorus). Hormone (endocrine) regulation.
Two functions of the Integumentary system.
Protects deeper tissues from injury.
Regulates temperature.
Protects and prevents invading organisms and chemicals from getting deeper into the body tissues.
Eliminates waste and toxins through sweat and other secretions.
Two functions of the Endocrine system.
Regulates the body through chemical mechanisms (releases hormones into the blood).
Helps control mood, growth, development metabolism, and reproduction.
Regulates heart rate, blood pressure.
Regulates sleep and wake cycles.
Two functions of the Reproductive system.
Produces germ cells (eggs + sperm).
Transports and sustains these cells to ensure survival.
Environment for growth of the fetus (female).
Define Superficial.
Located on or near the surface if the body or an organ.
Define Deep.
Located further away from the surface of a body or an organ.
Name the five body cavities.
Cranial, Vertebral/ Spinal, Thoracic, Abdominal, Pelvic.
Cranial boundary.
Skull.
Vertebral boundary.
Vertebrae.
Thoracic boundaries.
Anterior- sternum, ribs, intercostal muscles.
Lateral- ribs, intercostal muscles.
Posterior- vertebrae, ribs.
Inferior- diaphragm.
Abdominal boundaries.
Superior- diaphragm.
Anterior- abdominal muscles.
Posterior- vertebrae.
Pelvic boundaries.
Superior- imaginary line between the symphysis pubis and superior sacrum.
Anterior- Symphysis pubis and pelvic bones.
Posterior- pelvic bones (sacrum, coccyx).
Lateral- Pelvic bones.
Inferior- pelvic floor muscles.
Cranial cavity organs.
Brain.
Vertebral cavity organs.
Spinal cord.
Thoracic cavity organs.
Lungs and heart.
Abdominal cavity organs.
liver, gallbladder, spleen, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, kidneys, colon, adrenal glands.
Pelvic cavity organs.
Urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, terminal sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal female reproductive organs, male reproductive organs.
What is a body plane?
Imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body into definite areas.
What is a body section?
a cut of the body or organ made along a specific plane.
Midsagittal plane.
Divides the body or organ into equal left and right sides because it runs through the midline.
Parasagittal
Divides the body or organ into unequal left and right sides.
Frontal plane.
Divides the body or organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior).
Transverse plane.
Divides the body or organ into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions.
Anterior.
Ventral- at the front. Towards the front.
Posterior.
Dorsal- at the rear. Towards the back.
Superior.
Towards the head.
Inferior.
Away from the head.
Medial.
Nearer to the midline.
Lateral.
Farther away from the midline.
Proximal.
Nearer to the attachment of the limb-toward or nearest the trunk.
Distal.
Farther away from the attachment of the limb or the point of origin of a part.
Four abdominal quadrants.
Right and left upper, right and left lower.
Right upper quadrant organs.
Liver, stomach, gallbladder, duodenum, right kidney, pancreas, right adrenal gland.
Left upper quadrant organs.
Liver, stomach, left kidney, spleen, left adrenal gland.
Right lower quadrant organs.
Appendix, reproductive organs, right ureter.
Left lower quadrant organs.
Left ureter, reproductive organs.
Abdominopelvic regions.
Right + Left hypochondriac, epi + hypo gastric, umbilical, Right + left lumbar, Right + left iliac (inguinal).
Right hypochondriac contains…
liver, right kidney, large + small intestine, gallbladder.
Epigastric contains….
Liver, stomach, spleen, duodenum, adrenal glands, pancreas.
Left Hypochondriac contains…
Liver’s tip, stomach, pancreas, left kidney, spleen, large/small intestine.
Right lumbar contains…
Ascending colon, small intestine, right kidney.
Umbilical contains…
Duodenum, small intestine.
Left lumbar contains…
Descending colon, small intestine, left kidney.
Right iliac (inguinal) contains…
Appendix, ascending colon, small intestine, cecum (pouch joined to the appendix), first part of the colon
Hypogastric contains
Bladder, Sigmoid colon, small intestine, reproductive organs.
Left iliac (inguinal) contains…
Sigmoid colon, descending colon, small intestine.
What is homeostasis?
A condition of equilibrium (stability/ balance), in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes. It is dynamic and responds to constant fluctuations in the external and internal environment.
Internal conditions may vary but only within a narrow range due to homeostasis.
Define a positive feedback loop.
A positive feedback loop enhances and accelerates the change in the controlled condition so that the control process continues at a faster rate. It only stops when the stimulus is interrupted by some mechanism.
Define a negative feedback loop.
A negative feedback loop reverses a change in a controlled condition. It provides sudden severe changes within the body. The effector that is activated by the control centre, opposes or negates the original stimulus. Once homeostasis is achieved it stops the response so that the control process is shut off.
Define receptor.
A sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes called stimuli by sending information to a control centre.
Define control centre.
The brain sets the set point/range within which a controlled condition should be maintained, analyses the input and determines the appropriate response.
Information (output) then flows from the control centre to:
Define Effectors.
A body structure that receives output from the control centre and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition.
Example of negative feedback loop.
hyperglycemia- if the BGL rises above 90mg/100ml receptors in the body sense a change and the beta cells in the pancreas release insulin into the blood. Insulin acts as a signal that triggers cells of the body such as fat and muscle cells, to take up glucose for use as fuel. Insulin also causes glucose to be converted into glycogen (a storage molecule) and stored in the liver. Both processes pull sugar out of the blood, bringing sugar levels down,r reducing insulin secretion, and returning the system to homeostasis.
Example of a positive feedback loop.
Normal childbirth- first contractions of labour (stimulus) push part of the foetus into the cervix,
Stretch-sensitive nerve cells (receptors) monitor the amount of stretching of the cervix (controlled condition).
As stretching increases, they send more nerve impulses (input) to the brain (control centre), which releases the hormone oxytocin (output) into the blood. Oxytocin causes muscles in the wall of the uterus (effector) to contract with even more force. The contractions push the foetus farther down the uterus, which stretches the cervix even more.
This cycle is only disrupted by the birth of the baby.- stretching of the cervix and oxytocin is no longer released.
Four main tissues.
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.
Epithelial tissue functions.
Forms boundaries between different environments and the body, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters, forms glands and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts.
Connective tissue functions.
Protect, supports, and bind organs.
Muscle tissue functions.
Contracts to make body structures move (produces movement). Generates heat used by the body.
Nervous tissue functions.
Internal communication- controls and detects changes in the body and responds by generating nerve impulses.
3 types of muscle tissue
Muscles attached to bones (skeletal), Muscles of the heart (cardiac), muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth).
10 types of connective tissue.
areolar, adipose, bones, blood, elastic connective, hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, loose connective tissue (tendons, ligaments). Dense connective tissue.
7 types of epithelial tissue.
Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified, stratified squamous, transitional, glandular.
Where is a pseudostratified columnar epithelial?
Trachea.
Where is stratified squamous epithelium
The outer layer of the skin, the mucous membrane of the mouth, or vagina.
Where is simple cuboidal epithelium?
Lines the tubules of the kidneys, covers ovaries.
Where is simple columnar epithelium?
Small intestine.
Where is pseudostratified epithelium?
Upper respiratory tract.
Where is transitional epithelium?
Urinary bladder.
Simple squamous epithelium location.
lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems (heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessel linings), alveoli of lungs.
glandular epithelium location.
secreting portion of glands- thyroid, adrenal, sweat, salivary glands.
Simple squamous epithelium function.
Diffusion, osmosis, filtration.
Glandular epithelium function.
Secretion. Cover and line the epithelium.
Simple squamous epithelium description.
Single-layer of flat cells.
Simple cuboidal epithelium function.
Absorption or secretion.
Simple columnar epithelium function.
Main function is protection.
Stomach- impermeable barrier that protects against bacteria that could be ingested, permeable to necessary ions, which is important particularly in the colon.
Pseudostratified epithelium function.
Sweep away mucus and trap foreign particles.
Stratified squamous epithelium function
Skin: protect underlying structures.
Mucous membrane: protect underlying structures.
Transitional epithelium description.
Multilayered change from round to flat.
Transitional epithelium function.
Allows an organ to stretch without tearing.
Stratified squamous epithelium description.
Multilayered flat cells- surface cells dead and filled with keratin. (skin)
Multilayered flat cells with no keratin, cells moist and living even at the surface.
Pseudostratified epithelium description.
Single-layer but looks like several layers.
Simple cuboidal epithelium description.
Single-layer cube-shaped cells.
Glandular epithelium description.
Unicellular and multicellular.
Simple columnar epithelium description.
Single-layer rectangular cells. Microvilli increase surface area for absorption.
Cardiac muscle tissue location
Heart wall.
Cardiac muscle tissue function.
Contracts and relaxes. Pumps blood to all parts of the body.
Cardiac muscle tissue description.
Branched, striated fibres- made of lots of cells and needs plenty of O2 and fuel to survive.
Smooth muscle tissue location.
Iris of eyes, walls of hollow internal structures (blood vessels, airways to lungs, stomach, intestines, gall bladder, urinary bladder, uterus.
Smooth muscle tissue function.
Motion- (constriction of blood vessels and airways, propels foods through the gastrointestinal tract, contraction of urinary bladder and gall bladder).
Smooth muscle tissue description.
Fibres usually involuntary, nonstriated. A small spindle-shaped cell that is thickest in the middle.
Skeletal muscle tissue location.
Found Attached to bones by tendons.
Skeletal muscle tissue description.
Long, cylindrical, striated fibres. (voluntary)
Skeletal muscle tissue function.
Motion, posture, heat production, protection.
Nervous tissue location.
Brain, spinal cord, nerves.
Nervous tissue description.
Consists of neurons (nerve cells). made of lots of cells and matrix.
Nervous tissue function
Moves body, controls, and co-ordinates movements by sensing the environment and converting stimuli into nerve impulses; conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibres, glands.
Connective tissue function.
binds, supports, strengthens other body tissues, protects and insulates internal organs, compartmentalises structures like the skeletal muscles, serves as a transport system.
Connective tissue description.
Consists of matrix and cells. Cells rarely touch each other because they secrete a protein (ground substance) that widely separates them.
Areolar connective tissue function
Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to underlying tissues.
Adipose connective tissue function
Protective cushion, key energy reservoir, and a layer of insulation. Accumulates lipids for cold-induced adaptive thermogenesis.
Loose connective tissue function
Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissues to underlying tissues.
Regular dense connective tissue function
Used for strength- the collagen fibres serve to resist stretch.
Elastic connective tissue function
Can stretch then recoil.
Hyaline cartilage tissue function
reduces friction at joints by providing a smooth surface for joint movement.
Cartilage tissue function.
Provides support and cushioning for adjacent tissues.
Fibrocartilage tissue function.
Provides strong support, withstands heavy pressure and weight.
Bone connective tissue function.
Support and protect body structures. Stores minerals- calcium phosphate. movement. endocrine regulation. production of blood cells. storage of ions-
Blood connective tissue function.
Transport for nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gasses. transports O2 from the lungs to the cells and removes CO2 from the cells.
Areolar connective tissue description.
Collagen and elastic fibres, gelatinous ground substance.
Areolar connective tissue location.
Surrounds blood vessels, nerve bundles, muscles, and organs.
Adipose connective tissue location.
The subcutaneous layer of the skin, around internal organs (visceral layer), in bone marrow, breast tissue, intermuscular.
Adipose connective tissue description.
Made of fat-rich cells called adipocytes.
Loose connective tissue location.
Found around every blood vessel, under the epithelial layer of the skin, and around and between most organs.
Loose connective tissue description.
fluid/jelly-like-matrix made of elastic fibres (collagenous), ground substance, cells.
Regular dense connective tissue location.
Ligaments, tendons.
Regular dense connective tissue description.
Made of collagen fibres. Densely packed together, and arranged parallel.
Hyaline cartilage tissue location.
the ends of bones at joints.
Hyaline cartilage tissue description.
Shiny ground substance.
Cartilage tissue location.
Joints, nose, ears, intervertebral discs.
Cartilage tissue description.
Semi-rigid, but flexible avascular connective tissue.
Fibrocartilage tissue location.
Intervertebral discs, symphysis pubis, knee joint.
Fibrocartilage tissue description.
Made of collagen fibres- is strong and tough.
Bone connective tissue location.
Skeleton.
Bone connective tissue description.
Matrix with abundant collagen fibres for strength and calcium.
Blood connective tissue location.
Cardiovascular system.
Blood connective tissue description.
RBCs and WBCs plasma, soluble fibres (fibrin),
Cell membrane description and function.
Double lipid bi-layer that is a barrier to separate the interior of all cells from the outside environment. Is semi-permeable. Covers and protects the cell. Acts as a gate allowing transport into the cell (nutrients) and movement from the cell (waste). Also prevents substances from diffusing into areas they should not and marks the boundaries of the cell. Links to other cells and plays a role in cellular communication.
Cytoplasm description and function.
All the fluid (cytosol) inside the cell that contains enzymes and suspends organelles in place. Acts as a buffer and protects the genetic material of the cell and the organelles from damage caused due to collision and movement. Facilitates cellular respiration. Gives cells their shape. Aids in metabolic activity.
Cytosol description and function.
Intracellular fluid (water-based) that makes up the cytoplasm which houses organelles. The liquid found inside cells that is seperated into compartments by membranes. Site of many chemical reactions which provide the building blocks for cell maintenance, structure, fucntion and growth.
Nucleolus description and function.
The round body located inside the nucleus, not surrounded by membrane makes ribosomes and RNA.
Ribosomes description and function.
Very tiny structures made of RNA. Ribosomes use their RNA to build/synthesise proteins. Are seen floating around the cytoplasm of the cell or attached to the rough ER.
Ribosomes description and function.
Very tiny structures made of RNA. Ribosomes use their RNA and join amino acids to build/make proteins (first stage). Are seen floating around the cytoplasm of the cell or attached to the rough ER.
Vesicles description and function.
Transport vesicles, lysosomes, secretory vesicles.
Tiny sacs that transport material within or outside of the cell membrane. Form naturally during exocytosis and endocytosis. Small fluid-filled sac- consists of liquid or cytoplasm enclosed by lipid layer.
Cytoskeleton description and function.
The network of protein filaments and tubules throughout the cytosol. provides structural support and internal organisation for the cell. Provides mechanical support which aids in the transport of substances within the cell.
Rough ER description and function
A network of membranes shaped like flattened sacs.
Connected to the nuclear envelope, the surface has ribosomes that synthesise proteins (second stage) Production, folding, quality control, and dispatch.
Smooth ER description and function
A network of membrane tubules.
Does not have ribosomes.
Synthesises lipids.
Golgi Apparatus/complex description and
function
Complex vesicles and folded membranous sacs within the cytoplasm involved in secretion and intracellular transport. Receive products manufactured by the ER and modify, sort, and packages proteins for transport (secretion) by the cell via exocytosis.
Mitochondria description and function.
Membrane-bound organelles that generate ATP needed to power the cell’s biochemical reactions. Extracts energy in food and converts it into energy stored in the ATP.
Centrioles description and function
Paired barrel-shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of the cell, near the nuclear envelope. Spin microtubules that move and separate the chromosomes during cell division.
Cilia description and function
Short hair-like projections from the cell surface, that move substances across the cell surface.
Work to keep airways clear of mucus, dirt, and bacteria- moves mucus, bacteria, and dirt along respiratory passages to stop it from getting into lungs- to breathe easily and without irritation.
Found in lungs, middle ear, respiratory tract.
Flagella description and function
Long-hair-like structures that move an entire cell (sperm cell’s tail).
Move-in a whip-like manner.
Closely resemble cilium in structure.
The core, is a bundle of nine-pairs of microtubules surrounding two central pairs of microtubules- each microtubule is composed of the protein tubulin.
Found in bacteria and eukaryotes.
Filamentous protein structure- only found in sperm cells.
Enables sperm to swim (locomotion) and fertilise ovum (egg cell).
Also a sensory organelle- sensitive to chemicals and temperature outside the cell.
Lysosomes description and function
Membrane bounded vesicles that form by budding off from the membrane of the Golgi complex.
Macromolecules (food particles) are absorbed into the cell in vesicles form by endocytosis. The vesicles fuse with lysosomes, which then break down the macromolecules using hydrolytic enzymes.
Contain powerful digestive enzymes which digest/break down macromolecules- nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides.
Lysosomes fuse with membrane vesicles that derive from endocytosis, autophagocytosis, and phagocytosis.
Recycles old organelles through lysosomal digestion (amino acids and nucleotides), are recycled back to the cell for use in the synthesis of new cellular components.
Centrosome (microtubules) description and function.
Consists of two centrioles located near the nucleus. Direct movement of DNA during cell division.
