Intro to Sociology: Units A-5 Flashcards
Sociology
the science behind society
Social Facts
products of human interaction with persuasive or coercive power that exists externally to any individual
Who coined the phrase “social facts” in 1895?
Emile Durkheim
Data
Systematically collected sets of empirical observations
Research Questions
queries about the world that can be answered empirically
Sociological Research Methods
scientific strategies for collecting empirical data about social facts
Qualitative Research Methods
tools of sociological inquiry that involve careful consideration and discussion of the meaning of nonnumerical data
Quantitative Research Methods
tools of sociological inquiry that involve examining numerical data with mathematics
Sociological Sympathy
the skill of understanding others as they understand themselves
Research Ethics
the set of moral principles that guide empirical inquiry
What principles guide empirical inquiry?
respect, justice, and beneficence
Sociological Theory
empirically based explanations and predictions about relationships between social facts
Social Patterns
explainable and foreseeable similarities and differences among people influenced by the social conditions in which they live
Standpoints
points of view grounded in lived reality
Public Sociology
the work of using sociological theory to make societies better
Sociological Imagination
the capacity to consider how people’s lives- including our own- are shaped by the social facts that surround us
Theory of Mind
the recognition that other minds exist, followed by the realizations that we can try to imagine others’ mental states
Looking-Glass Self
that self that emerges as a consequence of seeing ourselves as we think other people see us
In-Depth Interview
a research method that involves an intimate conversation between the researcher and a research subject
Coding
a process in which segments of text are identified as belonging to relevant categories
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
a phenomenon in which what people believe is true becomes true, even if it wasn’t originally true
Laboratory Experiment
a research method that involves a test of hypothesis under carefully controlled conditions
Variable
any measurable phenomenon that varies
Experimental Group
the group in a laboratory experiment that undergoes the experience that researchers believe might influence the dependent variable
Control Group
the group in a laboratory experiment that does not undergo the experience that researchers believe might influence the dependent variable
Casual Claims
assertions that an independent variable is directly and specifically responsible for producing a change in a dependent variable
Correlational Claims
assertions that changes in an independent variable correspond to changes in a dependent variable but not in a way that can be proven causal
Self-Narrative
a story we tell about the origin and likely future of our selves
Culture
differences in groups’ shared ideas, as well as the objects, practices, and bodies that reflect those ideas
Socialization
the lifelong learning process by which we become members of our cultures
Culturally Competent
able to understand and navigate our cultures with ease
Social Construct
an influential and shared interpretation of reality that will vary across time and space
Social Construction
the process by which we layer objects with ideas, fold concepts into one another, and build connections between them
Type of Constructs: Signifiers
things that stand for other things (ex: emoji)
Type of Constructs: Categories
subsets of things that we believe are sufficiently similar to one another to be considered the same (ex: “pets” are a subset of animals)
Types of Constructs: Binaries
categories we see as opposites or otherwise in opposition (ex: good and evil)
Type of Constructs: Associations
ideas that have nothing special in common except for the fact that they’re connected by a third idea (ex: rainbows and flags= LGBTQ+ Pride)
Type of Constructs: Sequences
ideas arranged into a specific chronological order (ex: outline, draft, edit)
Types of Constructs: Hierarchies
ideas places into ranked relationships (ex: young is better than old)
Symbolic Structure
a constellation of social constructs connected and opposed to one another in overlapping networks of meaning
Beliefs
ideas about what is true and false
Values
notions as to what’s right and wrong
Norms
shared expectations for behavior
7 Agents of Socialization
Families, Schools, Peers, Religion, Mass Media, Work, and Military
Interpersonal Socialization
active efforts by others to help us become culturally competent members of our cultures
Subcultures
subgroups within societies that have distinct cultural ideas, objects, practices, and bodies
Self-Socialization
active efforts we make to ensure we’re culturally competent members of our cultures
Social Ties
the connections between us and other people
Social Networks
webs of ties that link us to each other and, through other people’s ties, to people to whom we’re not directly linked
Social Media
social networks mediated by the internet
Homophily
our tendency to connect with others who are similar to us
Social Network Analysis
a research method that involves the mapping of social ties and exchanges between them
Mass Media
mediated communication intended to reach not just one or a handful of people but many
Media Socialization
the process of learning how to be culturally competent through our exposure to media
Embodied
physically present and detectable in the body itself
Biosocial Research Methods
tools of sociological inquiry that investigate relationships between sociological variables and biological ones
Culture-as-Value Thesis
the idea that we’re socialized into culturally specific moralities that guide our feelings about right and wrong
Culture-as-Rationale Thesis
the idea that we’re socialized to know a set of culturally specific arguments with which we can justify why we feel something is right or wrong
Ethnocentrism
the practice of assuming that one’s own culture is superior to the culture of others
Cultural Relativism
the practice of noting that differences between cultures without passing judgment
Social Indentities
the socially constructed categories and subcategories in which we place ourselves or are places by others
Distinction
active efforts to affirm identity categories and place ourselves and others into their subcategories
Positive Distinction
the claim that members of our own group are superior to members of other groups
In-Group Bias
preferential treatment of members of our own group and mistreatment of others
Minimal Group Paradigm
the tendency of people to form groups and actively distinguish themselves from others for the most trivial of reasons
What are the 5 steps to socially construct and identity?
- Invent- establishing a human feature as a basis of identity
- Divide- deciding what will differentiate people within identity subcategories
- Stereotype- giving identity subcategories different symbolic meanings
- Perform- doing social identities in accordance with stereotypes
- Rank- elevating some identity subcategories over others
Social Identity Theory
the idea that people are inclined to form social groups, incorporate group membership into their identity, take steps to enforce group boundaries, and maximize positive distinction and in-group success
Sexual Minorites
people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or otherwise non-heterosexual
Race
a socially meaningful set of artificial distinctions falsely based on superficial and imagined biological differences
Psychological Wage
a noneconomic good given to one group as a measure of superiority over other groups
One-Drop Rule
the idea that anyone with any trace of Black ancestry should be considered Black
Blood Quantum Rule
a law limiting legal recognition of American Indians to those who have a least a certain level of documented indigenous ancestry
Ethnicity
an identity based on collective memories of a shared history and distinctive culture
Gender
the ideas, traits, interests, and skills that we associate with being biologically male or female
Sex
a reference to physical traits related to sexual reproduction
Gender Binary
the idea that people come in two and only two types, males who are masculine and females who are feminine
Intersex
people with physical characteristics typical of both people assigned male and people assigned female at birth
Cisgender
people who are assigned male at birth who identify as men as well as people assigned female at birth who identify as women
Transgender
people assigned male at birth who don’t identify as men as well as people assigned female at birth who identify as women
Nonbinary
people who identify as both man and woman or neither man nor woman
Stereotype
clusters of ideas attached by social convention to people with specific social identites
Content Analysis
a research method that involves counting and describing patterns of themes in media
Doing Identity
the active performance of social identities
Consumption
the use of wages to purchase goods and services
Conspicuous Consumption
spending elaborately on items and services with the sole purposes of displaying one’s wealth
Stigma
a personal attribute that is widely devalued by members of one’s society
Controlling Images
pervasive negative stereotypes that serve to justify or uphold inequality
Prejudice
attitudinal bias against individuals based on their membership in a social group
Status
high or low esteem
Status Beliefs
collectively shared ideas about which social groups are more or less deserving of esteem
Computational Sociology
a research method that uses computers to extract and analyze data
Status Elite
people who carry many positively regarded social identities
Intersectionality
the recognition that our lives are shaped by multiple interacting identities
Social Interaction
moments we share with other people
Social Rules
culturally specific norms, policies, and laws that guide our behavior
Folkways
loosely enforced norms
Mores
tightly enforced norms that carry moral significance
Taboos
social prohibitions so strong that the thought of violating them can be sickening
Policies
rules that are made and enforced by organizations
Laws
rules that are made and enforced by cities, states, or federal governments
Social Sanctions
reactions by others aimed at promoting conformity
Account
an excuse that explains our rule breaking but also affirms that the rule is good and right
Symbolic Interactionalism
the theory that social interaction depends on the social construction of reality
Dramturgy
the practice of looking at social life as a series of performances in which we’re actors on metaphorical stages
Impression Management
efforts to control how we’re perceived by others
Face
a version of ourselves that we want to project in a specific setting
Front Stage
a public space in which we are aware of having an audience
Back Stage
private or semiprivate spaces in which we can relax or rehearse
Interpersonal Discrimination
prejudicial behavior displayed by individuals
Field Experiment
a type of experiment that involves a test of hypothesis outside the laboratory
Ethnomethodology
research aimed at revealing the underlying shared logic that is the foundation of social interactions
Breaching
purposefully breaking a social rule in order to test how others respond
Deviance
behaviors and beliefs that violate social expectations and attract negative sanctions
Strain Theory
the idea that deviance is caused by a tension between widely valued goals and people’s ability to attain them
Differential Association Theory
the idea that we need to be recruited into and taught criminal behavior by people in our social networks
Social Disorganization Theory
the idea that deviance is more common in dysfunctional neighborhoods
Concentrated Poverty
a condition in which 40 percent or more of the residents in an area live below the federal poverty line
Neutralization Theory
the idea that deviance is facilitated by the development of culturally resonant rationales for rule breaking
Labeling
the process of assigning a deviant identity to an individual
Labeling Theory
a theory about how labels that are applied to us influence our behavior
Primary Deviance
the instance of deviance that first attracts a deviant label
Secondary Deviance
further instances of deviance prompted by the receipt of the deviant label
Structural Functionalism
the theory that society is a system of necessary, synchronized parts that work together to create social stability
Collective Conscience
a society’s shared understanding of right and wrong
Anomie
widespread normlessness or a weakening of or alienations from social rules
Survey Research
a research method that involves inviting individuals to complete a questionnaire designed to collect analyzable data
Sample
the subset of the population from which data will be collected
Generalizable
a term used to describe data that are applicable to the whole population from which the sample is drawn, not just the sample itself
Conflict Theory
the idea that societies aren’t characterized by shared interests but competing ones
Social Inequality
a condition in which wealth, power, and prestige are most readily available to people with privileged social identities
Historical Sociology
a research method that involves collecting and analyzing data that reveal facts about past events, with the aim of enhancing sociological theory
