Intro to SAP Flashcards
What is a Social Science?
- An umbrella term for the study of exploring human societies and social relationships
- (i.e. criminology, economics, political science, history, civics, geo, psych, soc, anthro, etc.).
What is Anthropology in simple terms?
- Culture and evolution + groups of people
What is Sociology in simple terms?
Society, gender, race, and power struggles + societies and institutions
What is psychology in simple terms?
Behaviour and feelings + individuals
Case Study
- Observation of an individual, situation or group over time
- Non-experimental, descriptive
- Understand rare events, gain insight into specific phenomena
Pros of Case Studies
- Provides depth, detail, and hypotheses for similar situations
- Similar situations can be solved by situations already closely examined
Cons of Case Studies
- Can be unrepresentative
- Observer bias may occur
Experiment
- Determines how one factor is related to another
- Examine cause and effect relationships
Pros of Experiments
- Highly controlled by the experimenter.
Cons of Experiment
- Can be unethical (may cause harm).
- Time-consuming to prepare.
- May not reflect real-world results
Sample Surveys
- Collects information about thoughts or behaviours of a large group
- Uses a questionnaire to gather data
- Draw conclusions from a smaller sample representing a larger group
Pros of Sample Surveys
- Can gather a large sample size
- Useful when direct study is difficult
Cons of Sample Surveys
- Some people maye be dishonest
- Biased questions may affect accuracy
Interviews
- Dialogue between interviewer and subject to gather detailed information
- Pre-prepared questions guide the conversation
- Get detailed explanations of thoughts and behaviour
Pros of Interviews
- Provides extensive, in-depth responses
Cons of Interviews
- Unrepresentative (small sample size)
- Time-consuming to conduct
Observations
- Researchers study people in their natural settings
- Types:
Unstructured: No predetermined focus
Participant Observation: Researcher joins the group’s activities
Naturalistic Observation: Watching people in natural settings
Pros of Observations
- Provides fresh insights
- Can be truthful since behaviour is natural
Cons of Observations
- Misinterpretation is possible
- Observer involvement may affect objectivity
- Time-consuming process
- People maye change behaviour if they know they’re being observed
Social Science Inquiry Method
- Identify a problem or question
- Take notes about what you already know and research what has been previously learned
- A possible answer to the question
- Gather the Data
- Analyze the Data
- Crossroads - Stop and Check
- Draw conclusions and present Results
- Reflection
Three General Requirements of a Study
- Objectivity:
- Reliability
- Validity
Objectivity
- Research should remain impartial and unbiased
- Key Aspects:
- Researcher acknowledges preconceptions
- Strives to be value-free in interpretation
Reliability
- Consistency of research findings when repeated
- Ensures results are replicable
Types of Reliability
- Test-Retest Reliability
- Interrater Reliability
- Internal Consistency
Test-Retest Reliability
- Measures consistency over time
- Ex. A life satisfaction test should yield the same results at different times
- If results change drastically, the test may measure mood instead
Interrater Reliability
- Ensures different observers produce similar results
- Ex. If two observers use different criteria, findings will be inconsistent
Internal Consistency
- Checks if test components measure the same concepts
- High internal consistency: All survey questions focus on job satisfaction
- Low internal consistency: Questions measure both job satisfaction & job stress
Validity
- The extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure
- Does the research accurately reflect reality?
- Can never be 100% certain but can build strong support for validity
Reliability vs. Validity
Reliability: Consistency of results when repeated
Validity: Accuracy – does it measure what it’s supposed to measure?
Independent Variable
The variable that is being manipulated to affect the outcome
Ex. “Does the colour of a drink affect the taste?” The COLOUR is the independent variable - it isn’t being changed by another term in the equation
Dependant Variable
The outcome that is affected by the other variable
Ex. “Does the colour of a drink affect the taste?” The TASTE is the dependent variable - it is affected by the other term in the equation
Types of Bias: Experimenter’s Effect
- The experimenter’s or participant’s expectations influence the results
- Ex. Placebo Effect
Solution for Experimenter’s Effect Bias
Double-Blind Study – Neither thr experimenter nor participants know who is in the control of experimental group
Types of Bias: Sampling Bias
When the sample does not accurately represent the population
- Cohort Effect: Age groups differ
- Volunteer Bias: Volunteers may not represent the general population
- Non-Response Bias: Participants who do not respond may differ from those who do
How to reduce Sampling Bias
- Clearly define the population and sampling frame.
- Keep surveys short and easily accessible.
- Set clear survey goals.
- Follow up with non-respondents.
- Avoid convenience sampling.
- Ensure all respondents have an equal chance to participate
Ethical Considerations: 3 Principles
Principle I: Respect for Persons
Principle II: Beneficence
Principle III: Justice
Principle I: Respect for Persons
- Participants must give informed consent.
- Protection for individuals unable to make decisions due to age, illness, or disability.
Principle II: Beneficence
Researchers must not harm participants.
Maximize benefits while minimizing harm.
Principle III: Justice
The benefits of the study must be distributed fairly.
What is Correlational Research?
- Correlation is a nonexperimental, descriptive method to determine the relationship between variables.
- It is a mathematical/statistical tool, not a direct research method.
- No manipulation of variables, only measurement.
Strengths of Correlation
- Helps determine relationships when experimentation is impractical or unethical
- Allows for prediction (e.g., SAT scores predicting college GPA)
- Uses correlation coefficients to describe strength and direction
Correlation Coefficients
- Range: -1 to +1
-Positive (+) correlation: Both variables -increase together - Negative (-) correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases
- Closer to ±1: Stronger relationship
- Close to 0: Weak or no relationship
Limitations of Correlation
- Does not prove causation
- Third variable problem: A separate, unmeasured variable may be influencing both variables
- Directionality problem: It is unclear whether variable X causes Y or vice versa
Examples of Correlation
- Positive correlation: Studying more leads to higher grades
- Negative correlation: More practice reduces stage fright
- No correlation: Shoe size and number of books read
Problems with Correlational Research
- Third Variable problem
- Directionality problem
Third Variable Problem
- Is there an external third variable unrelated to the cause in the hypothesis that may have caused the results?
- Ice cream sales and drowning deaths increase together, but temperature (third variable) is the real cause
Directionality Problem
- Could the question be the other way around?
- Do wealthy people become happier, or do happy people become wealthy?
- Chicken or the egg?
Example Study of Correlation
A government study finds that mothers who smoke more have children with more behavioral problems
- Type of correlation: Positive
- Directionality problem: Children’s behaviour may cause mothers to smoke
- Third variable problem: Financial stress may cause both smoking and behavioural issues
What is a good hypothesis?
A testable and measurable statement predicting a relationship between variables.
What is the operational definition of variables?
A clear, specific way to measure a variable in a study.
What are the two different sampling techniques discussed in class?
- Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
- Convenience Sampling: Selecting participants who are easiest to access.
What are the different methods of data collection?
Case studies, experiments, surveys, interviews, observations, correlational studies.
What is the difference between primary and secondary research?
- Primary Research: New data collected firsthand (e.g., surveys, interviews).
- Secondary Research: Using existing data (e.g., books, articles).
What are the different types of observation?
Unstructured: No specific focus.
Structured: Pre-planned focus.
Participant Observation: Researcher joins the group.
Naturalistic Observation: Watching without interference.
How does each discipline approach data collection differently?
- Anthropology: Fieldwork, participant observation.
- Sociology: Surveys, interviews, large-scale studies.
- Psychology: Experiments, case studies, clinical trials.
How does a correlational study differ from an experimental study?
- Correlation: Measures relationships but does not prove causation.
- Experiment: Manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.
Differentiate between positive and negative correlations.
- Positive: Both variables increase together.
- Negative: One variable increases while the other decreases.
Differentiate between positive and negative correlations
Positive: Both variables increase together.
Negative: One variable increases while the other decreases
What is a strong correlation coefficient? What is a weak correlation coefficient?
- Strong: Closer to ±1.
- Weak: Closer to 0.
