INTRO TO PSYCH

Question 1

intro to psych

Answer 1

the study of how we think, feel, and behave

Question 2

Biological level

Answer 2

The biological and chemical processes underlying behavior.

Question 3

Basic process level

Answer 3

Psychological processes that are universal to humans.

Question 4

Person level

Answer 4

individual differences in behavior. Think ‘behaviors influenced by someone’s individuality

Question 5

Quantitative and qualitative research (data collection)

Answer 5

Quantitative Data > Numerical data that is collected.
Qualitative data > Information about the quantities or chrematistics of what is being studied.

Objective = fact (clearly measurable)
Subjective = Opinions

Objective quantitative > factual numbers (heart rate)
Subjective quantitative > opinion numbers (happiness 1-10 scale)
Subjective Qualitative > opinion words (how do you feel?)

Question 6

Types of investigation designs

1) Experimental research design

Answer 6

is used to test whether one variable/ factor, influences or causes a change in another variable/factor.

Question 7

characteristics of an experimental design:

Answer 7

• Independent and Dependent variables
  Independent variable > the variable manipulated or changed by the experimenter to observe whether it has an effect on the other variable.
  Dependent variable > the variable used to observe or measure the independent variable.
• Controlled groups
  In an experiment that participants are divided into two groups. one group of participants in the experimental group that is exposed to the independent variable. The second group is called the controlled group and is exposed to controlled conditions where the independent variable is absent/ not being tested.
• Random allocation
  Is the process of each participant has an equal chance of being selected in any or the groups (controlled or experimental)

Question 8

Extraneous variables

Answer 8

a variable that is not the independent variable that causes a change in the dependent variable
1) Participant variables
The characteristics of the participant that can affect the way the participant responds to the experiment. E.g., intelligence, biological sex, cultural background, personality/ characteristics, motivation, emotional state, etc.

2) Placebo effect
The participants responses is influenced by their expectation of what to do or think. When participants respond in a way which they think they should.

3) Situational variables
Relate to how different conditions during the experiment procedure impact the outcome of the experiment.

4) Experimenter effects
Personal characteristic of the experimenter and their behaviour during the experiment may unintentionally affect the way which the research participants respond.

Question 9

Advantages and disadvantages of an experimental research design:

Answer 9

Advantages
-There is more control over extraneous variables.

• possible to determine a cause-and-effect relationship.
• Due to the strict condition of the control and experimental group the experimenter can set the experiment again and repeat to check their results.

Disadvantages

• Elimination of extraneous variables are not always possible.
• Experimental situations my not always relate to the real world.
• It may be unethical or impossible to randomly allocate participants

Question 10

Quantitative observational investigation design

Answer 10

a research design where the experimenter chooses to collect quantitative data by observing pre-existing criteria and variables

1) Quasi-experimental
Collects quantitative data by observing pre-existing criteria and variables. These include children of particular ages, gender, student/teacher, abused children, non-abused children. it is very similar to an experiment but there is no random allocation.

2) Non-experimental
collect quantitative data from a group of people over time. It is used to work out the degree and direction of the relationship collected by statistics, between two variables or measures of behavior. With this method, we can determine if there is a relationship between two variables, without having to manipulate any variables

Question 11

Advantages and disadvantages of a quantitative observational investigation design.

Answer 11

Advantages
- Used to navigate unethical issues.
- Used to investigate variables that are too costly.
- Can complete research in a naturalistic setting.
Disadvantages
- There is little control over extraneous variables.
- This makes it harder to infer that the difference is caused by the variable of interest.

Question 12

Qualitative investigation design measures

Answer 12

1) Focus groups:
Used to refer to a group interview technique that obtains data through discussion between research participants in a group setting.

Advantages of focus groups:

• The richness of quantitative data that can be generated.
• Groups are generally easy to organize.
• Useful to collect information from people who have difficulties with reading or writing.
• Can encourage participants to express their ideas who are normally uncomfortable or anxious about revealing information about themselves.
• Co-participants can provide support through their facial expressions or feelings that are common to the group.

Disadvantages of focus groups

• Participants may not feel comfortable expressing a particular response in from of others.
• The presence of others does not allow confidentiality.
• The presence of more outspoken group members being omitted may result in some member’s opinions being ignored or dismissed.

2) Delphi technique
Uses a series of self-administered questionnaires and feedback to obtain the opinion of experts in the field of interest.

Advantages of the Delphi technique

• Cheap
• Can be in large or small groups.
• There are few graphical limitations.
• Minimising disadvantages of face-to-face meetings

Disadvantages of the Delphi technique

• Forces consensus
• Does not allow the participants to discuss in a group.

Question 13

difference of quantitative compared to qualitative

Answer 13

Qualitative Methods
Textbased
More in-depth
Unstructured or semi-structured response options
No statistical tests

Quantitative Methods
Number-based
Less in-depth 
Fixed response options
Statistical tests are used for analysis

Question 14

Reliability and validity in research

Answer 14

Reliability
refers to the consistency and stability of the results contained in an investigation. the extent in which an investigation achieves the same results in repeated trials.

Validity
refers to how accurately the study produces results that actually measure what is intended to measure.

External validity
when results gathered in the lab can actually be applied to the real world.

Question 15

What leads to invalid or less valid results:

Answer 15

• Extraneous variables
• Incorrect or inappropriate choice of research design
• Incorrect or inappropriate choice of measure

Question 16

What leads to less reliable results?

Answer 16

• Not large enough sample size

- Extraneous variables

Question 17

Objective and subjective data

Answer 17

Objective data
based on the measurements of a participant’s response that and be directly observe and verified by the researcher.

Subjective data
are based on self-reports provided by participants. The data can be determined by research participants and the researcher cannot directly verify and therefore can be certain that the data is accurate.

Question 18

Methods of assessing psychological responses.

Answer 18

Objective quantitative measures

Physiological measures (Bodily processes e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, brain waves, etc.)

Behavioral counts (How often a certain behavior is expressed)

Scores on a standard test (Tests scores e.g., Naplan, SAT, exams, etc.)

Subjective quantitative measures

• Questionnaires
• Rating scales (happiness form 1-10)

Qualitative assessment:
- Responses gathered from qualitative research methods (focus groups, Delphi technique, etc.)

Question 19

Sample and population

Answer 19

Population
the entire group of research of interest

Sample
a subsection, or smaller group of the research participants of a large group (population)

Unrepresentative sample
a sample that is not able to represent the population size due to its size or biased in termed of factors such as gender, age, socio-economic status, or cultural groups

Question 20

researchers generally do three 3 things to gather findings…

Answer 20

When conducting research and results are obtained researchers generally do 3 things:

1) results are summarised
2) The results are interpreted so they can be understood
3) the results are explained.

Question 21

Descriptive statistics

Answer 21

Descriptive statistics
used to organise, summarise, and describe data so that they can be interpreted.

Mean
the mean describes the average of the data. it is calculated by adding all the scores together and dividing them by the total number of scores.

Median
Is the middle score (or midpoint) of the set scores. The median is the point that divides the set of scored into two equal half’s when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest.

Mode
Is the most frequent score within the data.

Question 22

Graphical representation of data

Answer 22

Normal distribution
when most data is in the middle of the graph forming a bell-shaped pattern. When really high or low data is plotted on either sides of the graph.

Skewed distribution
when scores are unevenly distributed and cluster to the left or right side. there is a lack of balance or symmetry in the distribution.

Variability
where there is a spread of scores and not all scores are the same.

Measure of variability
measuring the variability of scores determines how reliable any difference between the two means is. E.g., the difference between the experiment group and the controlled group in an experiment. if the set or scores are highly variable (widely spread) then the difference of the means of the two groups is less reliable and is more likely to have occurred by chance. However, if the set scores have low variability (scores that cluster around the mean) then the difference between the means of the two groups is more likely to be due to the effects of the independent variable, rather then by chance.

Range
a numerical score that describes the difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data. It gives a general variability of the set scores.

Standard deviation
summarises how far, on average a scores differs from the mean in the same unity of measurements as the original data. e.g., in IQ points, centimetres etc. The standard deviation provides variability in relation to the mean; if all set scores were the same there would be no variability therefore the standard deviation would 0. A small standard deviation mean little variation.

Question 23

ethics

Answer 23

informed consent

right to withdraw

confidentiality

voluntary consent

deception

debriefing

Question 24

socio cultural level

Answer 24

The influence that other people exert on behaviour by studying behaviour in social and cultural contexts.