Intro To Pathology Flashcards
Pathology
- The scientific study of disease
- measurable changes in normal structure and function
Disease
Any abnormal disturbance of the function or structure of the human body as a result of some type of injury
Pathogenesis
Refers to the sequence of events producing cellular changes that ultimately lead to observable changes known as MANIFESTATIONS
Etiology
Study of the cause of a disease
Iatrogenic
Reactions are adverse responses to medical treatment itself (e.g. a collapsed lung that occurs in response to a complication that arises during arterial line placement)
Idiopathic
Has no causative factor. Nobody knows why and how the person got the disease.
Symptom
Refers to the patient’s perception of the disease.
- subjective, only the patient can identify the manifestations
- ex: headache
Sign
- an objective manifestation that is detected by the physician during examination
- Ex: fever, swelling, and skin rash
Syndrome
Group of signs and symptoms that characterize a specific abnormal disturbance
Asymptomatic
When a disease process, especially in early stages, doesn’t produce symptoms
Pathophysiology
The physiology of abnormal states specifically: the functional changes that accompany a particular syndrome or disease
Homeostasis
- internal stability of the human body
- any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival
- if homeostasis is successful, life continues: if unsuccessful, disaster or death ensues
Acute
Abrupt onset of severe symptoms that runs a short course (<6months)
Chronic
Disease that develops slowly or intermittently (>6 months)
Inflammation
Refers to the body process of destroying, diluting, or walling off a localized injurious agent
Leukocytosis
Too high WBC
Leukopenia
Too low WBC
Infection
An inflammatory process caused by exposure to some disease-causing organism
Signs of infection
- redness
- swelling
- heat
- pain
- fever
- pus
- enlarged lymph nodes
Symptoms of infection
- Fever
- headache
- body aches
- weakness
- fatigue
- loss of appetite
- delirium
Modes of transmission
- direct physical contact
- indirect physical contact
- inhalation or droplet
- ingestion of contaminated food or water
- inoculation by an insect or animal
- bacteria
- viruses
- fungi
- Protozoa
Amount of chromosomes in each cell
23 pairs
Genotype
Genetic code in each cell
Genetic disease is produced by:
- abnormality in or a mutation of the genetic code in a single gene
- several abnormal genes
- abnormal presence or absence of an entire chromosome
- alteration in the structure of the chromosomes
Autosomal dominant
One mutated copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder
- some cases, affected person inherited the condition from an affected parent
- other cases, the condition may result from a new mutation in the gene and occur in people with no history of the disorder in their family
- ex: Marfans syndrome
Autosomal recessive
Both copies of the gene in each cell have mutations. The parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive condition each carry one copy of the mutated gene, but they typically do not show signs and symptoms of the condition. Typically not seen in every generation of an affected family.
Ex: cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease
Neoplasm
Refers to mass that has developed due to abnormal cell or tissue growth.
- can be benign or malignant
- characterized according to the cell type and tissue of origin
Benign tumors
Develop slowly and can arise from any tissue
-complications arise from the compression of the tumor
Malignant tumors
Variable in appearance, have the ability to invade the surrounding tissue, leading to metastasis
Tumor growth
Can be external or internal factors
External
Exposure to chemicals, radiation, viruses
Internal
Hormones, immune conditions, and inherited mutations
Tumor markers
Some tumor cells produce and secrete substances
-can have clinical value when found in lab work
-Ex: calcitonin: medullary thyroid cancer
CA 125: ovarian cancer
Alpha fetoprotein: germ cell tumors
Staging a tumor
- reflects his big tumor is and the spread
- TNM system
TNM System
Most widely used cancer staging system
- T: refers to size and extent of the main tumor
- N: refers to the # of nearby lymph nodes that have cancer
- M: refers to whether cancer has metastasized
- numbers after each letter that give details about cancer
Primary tumor
The main tumor
-(T)
Metastasized
Means that cancer has spread from the primary tumor to the other parts of the body
T in TNM
- (T) is primary tumor
- TX: main tumor can’t be measured
- T0: main tumors cannot be measured
- T1,T2,T3,T4: refers to size and/or extent of main tumor. The higher the # after the T, the larger the tumor or more it has grown into nearby tissues. T’s may be further divided to provide more detail, such as T3a and T3b.
N in TNM System
-N: regional lymph nodes
-N0: there is no cancer in nearby lymph nodes
-N1,N2,N3: refers to number and locationOf lymph nodes that contain cancer.
–The higher the number after the N, the more lymph nodes that contains cancer
M in TNM System
- distant metastasis
- MX: metastasis can’t be measured
- M0: Cancer has not spread to other parts of the body
- M1:Cancer has spread to other parts of the body
Diagnosis
Determination and identification of a disease an individual is believed to have
-A decision making process (Data from medical history, physical exam, diagnostic tests)—These steps create a logical basis for determining treatment and prognosis
Prognosis
Future outcome of the disease
predicted outcome
Data from medical history
- Patient interview
- Family history
- Predisposing factors
- Drug allergies
- Pre-existing conditions
- Current therapies
- Onset and nature of present illness
Physical exam
- Observation a measurement of vital signs
- Auscultation (listening)
- Palpitation (feeling)
- Percussion (tapping that produces vibration and sound)
Diagnostic tests
Labs Diagnostic imaging test EKG Holter monitor Pulse oximeter Endoscopy Pulmonary function test Genetic testing Polysomnography And more……
Atrophy
A generalized decrease in cell size
Example: when muscle cells decrease in size after the loss of innovation and use
Hypertrophy
A generalized increase in cell size
Example: if the aortic valve is diseased, then the left ventricle enlarges because of the increased muscle mass needed to pump blood into the aorta
Hyperplasia
An increase in the number of cells in a tissue as a result of excessive proliferation
Example: an estrogen-secreting ovarian tumor causing endometrial epithelial cells to multiply is an example of hyperplasia
Metaplasia
The conversion of one so type into another cell type that is not normal for that tissue
Example: epithelial cells in the respiratory tract of a smoker undergo metaplasia as a response to the chronic irritation from the chemicals in the smoke
Dysplasia
Refers to abnormal changes of mature cells. Individual cells within a tissue vary in size, shape, and color, and they are often non-functional. Dysplastic adaptations are considered pre-cancerous and our most commonly associated with neoplasms within the reproductive system in the respiratory tract
Ultrasound evaluation
Size Shadowing Contour Enhancement Echogenicity Artifacts
What to avoid
- Poor equipment
- Inappropriate transducer
- Incorrect gain settings
- Inadequate prep
- Poor exam technique
- Failure to recognize pathology
- Failure to recognize normal anatomy
