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Neuroscience > Intro to Neuro > Flashcards

Intro to Neuro Flashcards

1
Q

What does the science of Neuroscience focus on?

A

The structure and function of the nervous system including:

  • Molecular Biology
  • Cellular Biology
  • Neural Development
  • Physiology
  • Anatomy
  • Behavioral Neuroscience
  • Cognitive Neuroscience
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2
Q

What is neurology?

A

A branch of medicine concerned with disorders and diseases of the nervous system

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3
Q

What is the focus of molecular neuroscience?

A
  • Studies the role of individual molecules in the nervous system
  • Investigates the chemistry and physics involved in neural function
  • Involves the study of ionic exchanges required for action potentials
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4
Q

What is the focus of cellular neuroscience?

A

Studies the cells of the nervous system and how they function

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5
Q

What is the focus of systems neuroscience?

A
  • Studies the processes within neural circuits of the CNS
  • Seeks to understand how neural circuits function to produce Sensation, Movement, Behavior, Emotion, and Memories
  • Helps in the understanding of neurological, psychological and behavioral disorders
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6
Q

What is the focus of behavioral neuroscience?

A

Studies the biological bases of behavior

Examines how the brain affects behavior

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7
Q

What is the focus of cognitive neuroscience?

A

Studies how the brain creates and controls:

  • Learning
  • Problem-solving
  • Thought
  • Language
  • Memory
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8
Q

What is the overall function of the nervous system?

A

The master controlling and communicating system of the body

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9
Q

How do nervous system cells communicate?

A

Electrical and chemical signals

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10
Q

What are the characteristics of nervous system signals?

A

Signals are rapid, specific and usually cause an almost immediate response

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11
Q

What is included in the CNS?

A

Brain

Spinal Cord

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12
Q

What is the general function of the CNS?

A

Acts as the Integration and Command Center

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13
Q

What is included in the PNS?

A

Consists of all neural tissue outside of the CNS, including the Cranial Nerves, Spinal Nerves, Peripheral Nerves

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14
Q

What are the cranial nerves?

A

Nerves connected to the brain/brain stem

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15
Q

What are the spinal nerves?

A

Nerves attached to the spinal cord

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16
Q

What are the peripheral nerves?

A

Consist of bundles of axons that connect spinal nerves to peripheral structures

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17
Q

What are the divisions of the PNS?

A

Sensory (Afferent) Division

Motor (Efferent) Division

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18
Q

What is the general function of the Sensory (Afferent) Division?

A

Conducts impulses from receptors in the PNS to the CNS

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19
Q

What are the 2 Functional Subdivisions of the Sensory (Afferent) Division of the PNS?

A

Somatic Sensory Nerve Fibers

Visceral Sensory Nerve Fibers

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20
Q

What is the function of Somatic Sensory Nerve Fibers?

A

Conduct impulses from:

  • Skin
  • Skeletal Muscles
  • Joints
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21
Q

What is the function of Visceral Sensory Nerve Fibers?

A

Conduct impulses from Visceral Organs

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22
Q

What is the general function of the Motor (Efferent) Division?

A

Conducts impulses from CNS to effectors in the PNS

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23
Q

What are the 2 main parts of the Motor (Efferent) Division?

A

Somatic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

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24
Q

What is the function of the Somatic Nervous System?

A

Somatic Motor (voluntary)

Conducts impulses from the CNS to Skeletal Muscles

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25
Q

What is the function of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?

A

Visceral Motor (involuntary)

Conducts impulses from the CNS to Cardiac Muscles, Smooth Muscles, Glands

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26
Q

What are the 2 Functional Subdivisions of the ANS?

A

Sympathetic Division

Parasympathetic Division

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27
Q

What is the function of the Sympathetic Division and what physiological changes does it induce?

A

Mobilizes body systems during activity (fight or flight)

Concerned with Elevation of metabolic rate and Increased alertness

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28
Q

What is the function of the Parasympathetic Division and what physiological changes does it induce?

A

“Rest and digest”

Conserves energy

Lowers the metabolic rate

promotes house keeping functions during rest

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29
Q

What are neurons?

A

Specialized cells that generate and transmit electrical signals

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30
Q

What are nerves?

A

Consist of bundles of peripheral axons with associated Blood Vessels and Connective Tissue

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31
Q

Where in the nervous system are nerves found?

A

Lie outside of the CNS

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32
Q

What kind of fibers do spinal nerves contain?

A

Contain the fibers of:

  • Sensory Neurons
  • Motor Neurons
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33
Q

Where are neuron cell bodies located?

A

A Nerve does not contain the neuron cell body

Cell Bodies are located in:

  • Ganglia
  • Gray Matter
  • Nuclei
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34
Q

What are the cell body groups of the PNS called?

A

Ganglia

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35
Q

What are the cell body groups of the CNS called?

A

Nuclei

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36
Q

What are Neuroglia (Glial Cells) ?

A

Cells that support, protect and insulate neurons

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37
Q

What does a nervous system tract consist of?

A

Bundles of axons in the CNS

Has a common Origin and Destination

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38
Q

What kind of information do the axons of a tract carry?

A

Carry the same type of information (sensory or motor) in same direction

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39
Q

Where do nervous system tracts travel?

A

within the white matter

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40
Q

How are nervous system tracts named?

A

according to its Origin and Destination

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41
Q

What are nervous system tracts also know as?

A

Fascicle orFasciculus

Peduncle

Capsule

Lemniscus

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42
Q

What are the 2 parts of the spinal tracts and what do they do?

A
  • Carry information up or down the spinal cord, to or from the brain
  • Ascending Tracts: Carry sensory info to the brain
  • Descending Tracts: Carry motor info from the brain
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43
Q

What are the functions of tracts within the brain?

A

Carry information from one place to another within the brain

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44
Q

What do the differences in cellular components of neural tissue do?

A

Produce differences in the appearance of such tissue

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45
Q

What does white matter consist of and what causes them to be white?

A

Regions of CNS that primarily contain:

  • Myelinated Axons
  • Areas that are highly myelinated appear white due to the high lipid content of myelin
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46
Q

What does gray matter consist of?

A

regions of CNS that contain:

  • Neuronal Cell Bodies
  • Dendrites
  • Unmyelinated Axons
  • Axon Terminals
  • Neuroglia
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47
Q

What is the appearance of the cerebral cortex?

A

Consists of gray matter on the surface of the brain

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48
Q

Where is cerebral white matter located?

A

Lies deep to the gray matter of the cerebral cortex

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49
Q

What is the function of Axons in White Matter?

A

Convey information among different parts of the nervous system

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50
Q

Where is information in the brain integrated?

A

Information is integrated in gray matter

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51
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin and end?

A

Begins at the foramen magnum

Ends as conus medullaris (cone-shaped structure) at L1 – L2 vertebra

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52
Q

Where is the width of the spinal cord the greatest and why?

A

width is greater in the cervical and lumbar regions

Due to spinal nerves that emerge to supply the upper and lower limbs

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53
Q

What are the dimensions of the adult spinal cord?

A

About 18” long

Maximum width .55”

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54
Q

What does the cauda equina consist of and where is it located?

A

The collection of spinal nerve roots from L2 to 1st coccygeal nerve inferior to the conus medullaris

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55
Q

Is the spinal cord part of the PNS or the CNS?

A

CNS

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56
Q

Are the spinal nerves part of the PNS or the CNS?

A

PNS

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57
Q

What protects the spinal cord?

A

Bone

Meninges: Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater (extends to the level of S2), Pia Mater

CSF

Cushion of fat in the epidural space

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58
Q

What does the Filum Terminale consist of and where is it located?

A

A fine connective tissue filament closely united with the pia mater

Extends from the conus medullaris

Descends through the vertebral canal and sacral canal

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59
Q

Where does Arachnoid mater end?

A

S2

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60
Q

What happens to filum terminale at S2?

A

pierces the arachnoid mater and becomes invested with dura mater

filum terminale is now called the Coccygeal Ligament

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61
Q

What does the Coccygeal Ligament Consists of?

A

Fibrous Connective Tissue

Pia mater

Dura mater

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62
Q

Where does Coccygeal Ligament end?

A

Continues inferiorly to anchor at Coccyx 1

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63
Q

What is the function of Filum Terminale?

A

Provides longitudinal support to the spinal cord

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64
Q

Into what area are lumbar puncture needles injected?

A

subarachnoid space around lower lumbar region

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65
Q

How many segments can the spinal cord be divided into?

A

can be divided into 31 segments based on the origins of the spinal nerves

Each segment is identified by a letter and number

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66
Q

What does a spinal cord segment consist of?

A

the spinal cord area where the rootlets connect to the spinal cord

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67
Q

What is the route of an axon?

A

Axons traveling through the rootlets, roots and spinal nerves connect a Spinal Cord Segment with a specific part of the body

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68
Q

Example: where do C6 and C7 Dermatomes convey sensory signals to?

A

C6 and C7 Spinal Cord Segments

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69
Q

What are the roots of the spinal nerves?

A

Bundles of axons that connect each spinal nerve to a segment of the spinal cord by small bundles of axons called rootlets

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70
Q

With what is each spinal segment is associated?

A

a pair of Dorsal Roots and Ventral Roots

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71
Q

What are dorsal roots?

A

Contain axons of sensory neurons that conduct sensory impulses from the PNS into the CNS (spinal cord)

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72
Q

What is each dorsal root associated with?

A

Dorsal Root Ganglion

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73
Q

What are Dorsal Root Ganglion and where are they located?

A

An enlarged area of the dorsal root that contains cell bodies of sensory neurons

Lies between the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae

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74
Q

What are dorsal rootlets

A

Small bundles of axons that arise from a single dorsal root (sensory)

Enter the spinal cord

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75
Q

What are the ventral rootlets?

A

Small bundles of axons that arise from the spinal cord

Merge to form a single ventral root (motor)

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76
Q

What are the ventral roots?

A

Contain axons of motor neurons that conduct motor impulses from CNS to the periphery (skeletal muscles and glands) to control somatic and visceral effectors

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77
Q

Why are there no Ventral Root Ganglia?

A

Because the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in the ventral gray horn of the spinal cord

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78
Q

What is the Spinal Nerve Root?

A

The union of the ventral and dorsal roots within the intervertebral foramen

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79
Q

How is a spinal root classified?

A

Since it’s formed by the merging of a dorsal root (sensory) and ventral root (motor) it is classified as a mixed nerve

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80
Q

How does the Spinal Nerve Root exit the vertebral column?

A

via openings (intervertebral foramina) between adjacent vertebrae

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81
Q

Are all spinal cord segments are aligned with their corresponding vertebrae?

A

not all

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82
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

31 Pairs

Cervical-8
Thoracic-12
Lumbar-5
Sacrum-5
Coccyx-1
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83
Q

After passing through the IVF, where does the spinal nerve go?

A

divides into branches:

  • Dorsal Ramus
  • Ventral Ramus
  • Meningeal Branch
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84
Q

What does the ventral ramus divided into?

A

Rami Communicantes (sing. Ramus Communicans):

  • Gray Rami Communicantes: All spinal nerves
  • White Rami Communicates: Spinal nerves T1 – L2
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85
Q

What is the function of the spinal nerve?

A

carries visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory signals to and from the spinal cord

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86
Q

What is the function of Ramus communicans?

A

carries visceral motor signals from the ANS to organs of the ventral body cavity

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87
Q

What is the function of the anterior and posterior rami?

A

carry somatic motor signals from the CNS to skeletal muscles, and sensory signals from sensory receptors in the PNS to the spinal cord

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88
Q

What is the route of sensory transmission?

A
  1. peripheral process transmits an AP from the sensory receptors to the neuron’s other axon, the central process
  2. central process transmits an AP form peripheral process to the posterior horn, eventually synapsing on a neuron in the spinal cord or brainstem
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89
Q

What are spinal meninges?

A

Protective connective tissues that encircle the spinal cord

Continuous with cranial meninges

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90
Q

What are the 3 layer of the spinal meninges?

A

Dura Mater: outer layer

Arachnoid Mater: middle layer

Pia Mater: inner layer; Lies directly over the nerve tissue of the spinal cord

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91
Q

What is the general appearance of the cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord consist of?

A

Consists of areas of white matter that surround an inner region of gray matter shaped like the letter H

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92
Q

What does the gray matter of the spinal cord consist of?

A

Neuron Cell Bodies

Unmyelinated Axons

A few Myelinated Axons

Synapses

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93
Q

How can the gray matter of the spinal cord be subdivided?

A

Ventral (Anterior) Gray Horns

Lateral Gray Horns (T1 – L2)

Dorsal (Posterior) Gray Horns

Gray Commissure

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94
Q

What does the white matter of the spinal cord consist of?

A

mainly myelinated axons

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95
Q

What is the purpose of the anterior and posterior gray commissure of the spinal cord?

A

Connects gray matter of right and left sides of the spinal cord where axons cross from one side of the cord to the other

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96
Q

What is the central canal of the spinal cord?

A

Narrow space that contains CSF that extends the entire length of the spinal cord

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97
Q

What does the Central Canal of the spinal cord continue with superiorly?

A

with the 4th ventricle in the

medulla oblongata

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98
Q

What is contained within the posterior gray horn?

A

Axons of somatic and autonomic sensory neurons that enter the spinal cord via dorsal roots

Cell bodies of interneurons

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99
Q

What is contained within the lateral gray horn?

A

Cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons:

  • Cardiac Muscle
  • Smooth Muscle
  • Glands
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100
Q

Where are the lateral gray horns located?

A

Only in thoracic and lumbar regions (T1 – L2)

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101
Q

What is contained within the anterior gray horn?

A

Cell bodies of somatic motor neurons whose axons exit the spinal cord via ventral roots

Terminal knobs of:

  • Interneurons synapsing in the Anterior Gray Horn
  • Descending 1st Order Motor Neurons (UMNs)
  • Axons of Preganglionic Visceral Motor Neurons (whose cell bodies are located in the Lateral Gray Horns) that exit the spinal cord via ventral roots
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102
Q

Where are the anterior and posterior white commissures located?

A

anterior and posterior to the gray commissures

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103
Q

What is the purpose of the anterior and posterior white commissures?

A

Connect white matter of right and left sides of the spinal cord where axons cross from one side of the spinal cord to the other

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104
Q

What are the 3 columns (Funiculi) called that are formed by the Anterior and Posterior Gray Horns
dividing white matter?

A

Dorsal (Posterior) White Columns

Ventral (Anterior) White Columns

Lateral White Columns

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105
Q

What do the tracts (Fascicle orFasciculus) of each column (funiculi) carry?

A

the tracts (bundle of axons) carry the same type of information (sensory or motor) in the same direction

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106
Q

What are the grooves called that divide the spinal cord into right and left sides?

A

Ventral (Anterior) Median Fissure

Dorsal (Posterior) Median Sulcus

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107
Q

What do nerves consist of?

A

Fascicles (bundles of axons)

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108
Q

What are the protective connective tissue coverings of the Spinal Nerves, Peripheral Nerves and Cranial Nerves called?

A

Epineurium (outer most)
Perineurium
Endoneurium (inner most)

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109
Q

What are the 3 major parts of the brain?

A

cerebrum

cerebellum

brain stem

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110
Q

What are the parts of the diencephalon within the cerebrum?

A

Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
Subthalamus

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111
Q

What does the brain stem connect?

A

spinal cord with the cerebral region

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112
Q

What are the major divisions of the brain stem?

A

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

Pons

Medulla Oblongata

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113
Q

What is the largest part of the brain?

A

Cerebrum

114
Q

What divides the 2 cerebral hemispheres?

A

Separated by the longitudinal fissure

115
Q

What are the 3 basic regions of each cerebral hemisphere?

A

Cerebral Cortex: A superficial layer of gray matter; about 2 – 4 mm thick

An internal white matter

Basal Nuclei: Islands of gray matter located deep w/in white matter

116
Q

What does the surface of the cerebrum consist of?

A

Gyri: Elevated ridges (folds)
Sulci: Shallow grooves

117
Q

What are fissures within the brain?

A

Deep grooves that separate large regions of the brain

118
Q

What are the 2 fissures within the brain?

A

Longitudinal Fissure: Separates the cerebrum along midline into right and left halves (Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres)

Transverse Fissure: Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum

119
Q

What are the 6 lobes within each hemisphere?

A 
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital 
Insula
Limbic (some books do not consider this to be a lobe, 
but rather a system)
120
Q

What is the function of the central sulcus?

A

Separates the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal Lobes

=

121
Q

What borders the central sulcus?

A

Anteriorly: Precentral Gyrus

Posteriorly: Postcentral Gyrus

122
Q

What is the function of the Parieto-occipital Sulcus?

A

Separates the Parietal Lobes from the Occipital Lobe

123
Q

Which part of the Parieto-occipital Sulcus is seen on the lateral surface of the hemisphere?

A

Only its superior end

124
Q

Where is the main part of the Parieto-occipital Sulcus located?

A

on the medial surface of each hemisphere

125
Q

What is the function of the Lateral Sulcus?

A

Separates the Temporal Lobe from the Parietal and Frontal Lobes

126
Q

What is found deep within the lateral sulcus?

A

the Insula which is covered by portions of the Temporal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Frontal Lobe

127
Q

What is the Limbic “Lobe” (System)comprised of?

A

an interconnected group of structures w/in a wide portion of the cerebral cortex on medial side of each cerebral hemisphere

Includes parts of the Frontal and Temporal Lobes

128
Q

What does the Limbic “Lobe” (System) surround?

A

Forms a rim around the corpus callosum

129
Q

What does the Limbic “Lobe” (System) primarily include?

A

Cingulate Gyrus: lies above corpus callosum

Parahippocampal Gyrus: in the medial aspect of the Temporal Lobe and surrounds the hippocampus

Olfactory Cortex

130
Q

What is the correspondence like between a specific function and a specific region of cerebral cortex?

A

not precise

131
Q

What is indicated by the boundaries between regions being indistinct?

A

One region may have several functions

132
Q

What are the functions of the cerebral cortex?

A
  • Processing of Sensory, Motor, and Memory Information
  • Conscious Thought
  • Reasoning
  • Language
  • Nonverbal Communication
  • Intelligence
  • Personality
133
Q

How does each cerebral hemisphere communicate sensory and motor info with the body?

A

Each cerebral hemisphere receives sensory information from, and sends motor commands to, the opposite side of the body

134
Q

What is the location of cerebral white matter?

A

Lies deep to the gray matter of the cerebral cortex

135
Q

What does cerebral white matter consist of?

A

Consists of myelinated axons bundled into tracts that are responsible for communication within the CNS

136
Q

What are the types of tracts within the cerebrum?

A

Association Tracts: Connect different regions of cerebral cortex w/in same hemisphere

Commissures: Tracts that extend between right and left cerebral hemispheres (ex: Corpus Callosum)

Projection Tracts: Connect cerebral cortex of the hemispheres with lower brain (diencephalon, cerebellum, brain stem) or spinal cord

137
Q

What is the internal capsule of the cerebrum?

A

A deep subcortical structure located between diencephalon and basal nuclei

Consists of a broad band of myelinated (white matter) fibers (Projection Fibers)

138
Q

What is the function of the internal capsule of the cerebrum?

A

Contains axons carrying:

  • Sensory signals from the thalamus to the somatosensory cortex
  • Motor signals from the motor cortex to the thalamus, brainstem and spinal cord
139
Q

What is the appearance of the Cerebrum in a transverse section?

A

has a V-shape appearance

140
Q

What is the Basal Nuclei?

A

A group of interconnected subcortical nuclei(gray matter) that consists of 3 nuclei deep within each cerebral hemisphere

141
Q

What are the 3 nuclei deep order within the basal nuclei?

A

Caudate Nucleus-> striatum -> corpus striatum

Putamen -> lentiform nucleus and striatum -> corpus striatum

Globus Pallidus -> Lentiform Nucleus -> corpus striatum

142
Q

What are the related nuclei in the Basal Nuclei?

A

Subthalamic Nucleus: located inferior to the thalamus and lateral to the hypothalamus

Substantia Nigra: located in the midbrain

143
Q

What are the Caudate Nucleus and Putamen collectively referred to as?

A

the Striatum

144
Q

What are the Putamen and Globus Pallidus collectively referred to as?

A

the Lentiform Nucleus

145
Q

Where do basal nuclei receive input from?

A

Cerebral Cortex

Thalamus

Brainstem

146
Q

Where do basal nuclei send messages to?

A

Cerebral Cortex via the Thalamus

147
Q

What are the functions of the basal nuclei?

A

Facilitate movement via subconscious motor control

Inhibit antagonistic and unnecessary movements

Works with limbic system to regulate emotions

Role in modulating cognitive function

148
Q

What is the purpose of the basal nuclei function of movement via subconscious motor control?

A

Controls automatic motor patterns and allows for smooth, coordinated movement of learned automatic motor patterns

Examples: Swinging of arms during walking, Writing, Riding a bike

149
Q

What is the purpose of the basal nuclei function of Inhibiting antagonistic and unnecessary movements?

A

Influences areas of the brain (e.g., motor cortex)
that affect movement

Different neural circuits in the basal nuclei promote and inhibit movement

150
Q

What are the effects of Lesions Involving the Basal Nuclei?

A

Motor disorders
Muscle dysfunction
Movement disorders
Cognitive impairment

151
Q

What movement disorders are associated with Lesions Involving the Basal Nuclei?

A

Hypokinetic disorders that result in decreased mobility: Parkinson’s disease
Hyperkinetic disorders that result in involuntary movements: Huntington’s disease

152
Q

What is Huntington’s Disease?

A

An inherited neurodegenerative disease

Characterized by: Choreiform movements (Involuntary, continuous movement of the body, especially of extremities and face)

Defects in behavior and cognition

153
Q

What is the substantia nigra of the cerebrum?

A

Nuclei in the midbrain linked to the Basal Nuclei that assists in skeletal muscle motor control

154
Q

What does the limbic system consist of?

A

A complex system of neurons that work together and span wide areas of the brain

155
Q

Where is the limbic system located?

A

The medial aspect of the cerebral hemispheres

156
Q

What parts are included in limbic system?

A

Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Cerebral Cortex
Hippocampus

157
Q

What is the function of the limbic system?

A

It is our emotional or affective (feelings) brain

Processes emotions and memories

Puts emotional responses to odors

158
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

Paired egg-shaped masses of gray matter

One located deep in each cerebral hemisphere

159
Q

What is the Interthalamic Adhesion (Intermediate Mass) of the thalamus?

A

A projection of gray matter that connects the right and left thalamic bodies

160
Q

What are the functions of the thalamus?

A
  • Acts as a relay station
  • Receives nearly all sensory information on its way to primary sensory cortex
  • Processes emotional information and some memory information
  • Integrates different types of sensations (e.g., touch and visual information)
  • Regulates consciousness, arousal, and attention
161
Q

Where is the hypothalamus in relation to the thalamus?

A

Inferior to the thalamus

162
Q

What are the functions of the hypothalamus?

A

Contains several small nuclei

Helps regulate:

  • Body Temperature
  • Hunger
  • Water Balance
  • Thirst
  • Metabolic Rate
  • Growth
  • Function of reproductive organs

Center for emotional response

Controls release of hormones by the Anterior Pituitary

Produces Posterior Pituitary hormones

163
Q

What is the infundibulum?

A

A narrow stalk that connects the hypothalamus to the Pituitary Gland

164
Q

What is the epithalamus?

A

Located in the posterior aspect of the Diencephalon

Contains the Pineal Gland which secretes melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate wake/sleep cycle

165
Q

What is the subthalamus?

A

Inferior to the thalamus and lateral to the hypothalamus

Anatomically, it is part of the diencephalon

Functionally, it is part of the basal nuclei

166
Q

What is the function of the Subthalamus?

A

Regulation of somaticmotor function

167
Q

What is the function of the brainstem?

A

Contains processing centers which relays information to or from the cerebrum or cerebellum

168
Q

What are the 3 regions of the brainstem?

A

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)- most superior

Pons

Medulla Oblongata- most inferior

169
Q

What are the cerebral peduncles?

A

A pair of nerve fiber tracts on the ventrolateral surfaces of the midbrain

170
Q

What kind of fibers are contained within the cerebral peduncles?

A

Descending efferent fibers that conduct impulses from the motor cortex to the Pons, Medulla Oblongata and Spinal Cord

Some ascending afferent fibers that conduct impulses to the thalamus

171
Q

How is the midbrain attached to the cerebellum?

A

via the superior cerebellar peduncles

172
Q

What is the cerebral aqueduct?

A

contained within the midbrain

A channel passing through the brainstem

Connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles (for CSF)

173
Q

What is the corpora quadrigemina?

A

contained within the midbrain

Contains centers for visual and auditory processing

Coordinate movements of head, eyes and trunk in response to visual and auditory stimuli

Consists of 4 dome-like dorsal protrusions (contain sensory nuclei)

  • Superior Colliculi: Visual Reflex Centers
  • Inferior Colliculi: Auditory Relay Centers
174
Q

Which cranial nerves’ nuclei are within the midbrain?

A

CN III (Oculomotor)

CN IV (Trochlear)

175
Q

What is contained within the pons?

A

Tracts

Nuclei for:

  • CN V (Trigeminal)
  • CN VI (Abducens)
  • CN VII (Facial)
  • CN VIII (Vestibulocochlear)-(also in Medulla Oblongata)
176
Q

What does the medulla oblongata connect?

A

brain to spinal cord

177
Q

What is contained within the medulla oblongata?

A

Major centers that regulate autonomic function

Nuclei for

  • CN VIII (Vestibulocochlear)- (also in the Pons)
  • CN IX (Glossopharyngeal)
  • CN X (Vagus)
  • CN XI (Accessory)
  • CN XII (Hypoglossal)
178
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

Posterior to the medulla and pons

Inferior to the posterior part of the cerebrum

179
Q

How many lobes are each of the 2 cerebellar hemispheres divided into?

A

3 lobes

180
Q

What is the vermis?

A

The mid-line of the cerebellum

Connects the right and left hemispheres

181
Q

What is the folia?

A

Parallel surface folds of gray matter (cerebellar cortex)

182
Q

What is the transverse fissure?

A

Separates the cerebellum from the occipital lobes of the cerebrum

183
Q

What is the arbor vitae?

A

An internal region of white matter

Visible in sagittal section

Resembles branches of a tree

184
Q

What is the direction of all fibers entering/leaving the cerebellum?

A

ipsilateral (do not crossover to opposite side)

185
Q

What are the cerebellar peduncles?

A

3 pairs of tracts that link the cerebellum to the brainstem

  • Superior Cerebellar Peduncles
  • Middle Cerebellar Peduncles
  • Inferior Cerebellar Peduncles

Carry afferent and efferent fibers

186
Q

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

A
  • Modulates voluntary muscular activity: Sends signals to motor cortex via thalamus, to help smooth movements- essential for smooth, purposeful movement but does not initiate muscle contraction
  • Regulates posture and balance
  • Coordinates gait
  • Controls muscle tone
  • May have a role in Cognition and Language Processing
187
Q

What could be the result of damage to the cerebellum?

A

Ataxia: failure of voluntary muscle control in the arms and legs

Results in lack of balance and coordination and disturbance of gait

A physical finding, not a disease

Signs and Symptoms often related to location of the lesions in cerebellum

188
Q

Are cranial nerves part of the CNS or PNS?

A

Part of the PNS

189
Q

How many cranial nerves are there?

A

12 pairs

190
Q

What are the assigned name and assigned number of each cranial nerve related to?

A

Assigned name relates either to structures served or their function

Assigned number corresponds to the nerve’s position along longitudinal axis of the brain, from rostral to caudal

191
Q

All cranial nerves only serve structures of the head, neck, and face except which?

A

Vagus Nerve (CN X)

192
Q

What does the vagus nerve (CN X) innervate?

A

Visceral organs in the Thoracic Cavity and abdominopelvic Cavity

Structures in the head and neck

193
Q

What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Cushions delicate neural structures

Supports brain

Transports Nutrients, Chemical Messengers, and Waste Products

194
Q

What produces cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Produced from arterial blood (protein-poor serous plasma) by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles

195
Q

What is the choroid plexus made up of?

A

Consists of capillaries with thin fenestrated endothelial cells covered by specialized ependymal cells with cilia

196
Q

What happens to the filtrate leaving the capillaries of the choroid plexus?

A

enters the ependymal cells where it is modified and then released as CSF into the ventricles

197
Q

What is the function of the cilia of the ependymal cells within the choroid plexus?

A

Line the ventricles and central canal

Help to keep the CSF in constant motion

198
Q

What does the Cerebrospinal fluid bathe?

A

The outer surfaces of the brain as it travels through the subarachnoid space

Central Canal

199
Q

How does cerebrospinal fluid return to the blood?

A

in the dural sinuses via the arachnoid villi

200
Q

Describe the ventricles of the brain?

A

Hollow chambers lined with ependymal cells

Contain the choroid plexus

Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Continuous with one another, and the central canal of the spinal cord

201
Q

Where are the lateral ventricles located?

A

deep within each cerebral hemisphere

202
Q

What is the septum pellucidum?

A

A thin vertical partition

Consists of 2 thin membranes

Separates the lateral ventricles

203
Q

What is the Interventricular Foramina (foramen of Monro)?

A

Consist of 2 openings

Connect the lateral ventricles with the third ventricle

204
Q

What is the third ventricle?

A

A narrow slit-like cavity along the midline within the diencephalon

Separates the 2 thalamic bodies and Adjacent halves of the hypothalamus

205
Q

What is the cerebral aqueduct?

A

A slender canal that connects third ventricle with the fourth ventricle

206
Q

Where is the fourth ventricle?

A

Lies between the pons and cerebellum

Inferiorly, it narrows and merges with the central canal of the spinal cord

207
Q

What are the 3 openings of the fourth ventricle that allow CSF to flow into the subarachnoid space?

A

Median Aperture (foramen of Magendie)

2 Lateral Apertures (foramina of Luschka)

208
Q

What are the 3 connective tissue membranes of the cranial meninges?

A

Dura Mater (most superficial)

Arachnoid Mater

Pia Mater (most deep)

209
Q

What is the function of the cranial meninges?

A

Surround and protect the brain

210
Q

What kind of connective tissue membrane is the dura mater made up of?

A

Tough fibrous connective tissue membrane

211
Q

What are the 2 layers of the dura mater?

A

Periosteal Layer (outer layer): Attaches to inner surface of the skull with no epidural space; Not present around the spinal cord

Meningeal Layer (inner layer): Covers the brain and continues inferiorly as the spinal dura mater

212
Q

The 2 layers of the dura mater are fused together except at where?

A

except at the Dural Venous Sinuses

213
Q

What are the Dural Venous Sinuses?

A

Venous channels located between the periosteal and meningeal layers of dura mater

Collect CSF and venous blood from the brain and direct it into the Internal Jugular Veins of the neck

214
Q

Describe the arachnoid mater?

A

Middle meningeal layer with web-like extensions (arachnoid trabeculae) that secure arachnoid mater to the underlying pia mater

215
Q

What is the subdural space?

A

Space between the meningeal layer of the dura mater and underlying arachnoid mater

Contains a small amount of serous fluid

216
Q

What is the Subarachnoid Space?

A

Space between the arachnoid mater the underlying pia mater

Contains CSF and blood vessels

217
Q

What is the Arachnoid Villi?

A

Small projections of arachnoid mater that protrude through the menigeal layer of dura mater into the superior sagittal sinus

CSF leaves the subarachnoid space through the arachnoid villi to enter the venous circulation

218
Q

What is the pia mater?

A

A thin layer of connective tissue

Adhered tightly to the brain

Anchored by the processes of astrocytes

219
Q

What are the dural folds (septa)?

A

In several locations the meningeal layer of the dura mater extends inward

Forms a double layer of dura mater called dural folds (septa)

Act as partitions that separate specific parts of the brain

Provide stability and support to the brain

220
Q

What are the 3 dural folds?

A

Falx Cerebri

Tentorium Cerebelli

Falx Cerebelli

221
Q

How is the blood supplied to peripheral nerves?

A

Blood vessels pierce the epineurium of peripheral nerves

Arterioles and venules travel parallel to the fascicles of neurons

222
Q

How is the blood supplied to the anterior spinal artery?

A

A single artery that runs along the entire length of the anterior midline of the spinal cord

223
Q

How is the blood supplied to the Right and Left Posterior Spinal Arteries?

A

A pair of arteries that run along the entire length of the posterolateral aspects of the spinal cord

224
Q

How does arterial blood flow to the brain?

A

mainly via the:

  • Right/Left Internal Carotid Arteries
  • Right/Left Vertebral Arteries
225
Q

How does venous blood flow from the brain?

A

from the brain it leaves the cranium via the Internal Jugular Veins and drain the dural venous sinuses

226
Q

How are the brainstem and cerebellum supplied with blood?

A

Branches of the vertebral arteries

Branches of the basilar artery

227
Q

The Right/Left Vertebral Arteries Merge along the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata to form what?

A

the Basilar Artery

228
Q

Internal Carotid Arteries and Basilar Artery interconnect to form what?

A

an anastomosis called the Cerebral Arterial Circle (Circle of Willis)

229
Q

The Internal Carotid Artery terminal branches to form what?

A

Anterior Cerebral Arteries

Middle Cerebral Arteries

230
Q

What is the Circle of Willis (Cerebral Arterial Circle)?

A

A circle of communicating arteries

231
Q

The Circle of Willis (Cerebral Arterial Circle) encircles what?

A

Infundibulum of the pituitary gland

Optic chiasm

232
Q

What is the function of the Circle of Willis (Cerebral Arterial Circle)?

A

Provides collateral circulation to the brain

Unites the brain’s anterior and posterior blood supplies

Allows the brain to receive blood from 2 main arteries:

  • Internal Carotid Arteries
  • Vertebral Arteries
233
Q

What does the Circle of Willis (Cerebral Arterial Circle) reduce the likelihood of?

A

a serious interruption of circulation if one of the vessels becomes occluded

234
Q

What forms the posterior part of the Circle of Willis?

A

Right/Left Posterior Cerebral Arteries

Formed by the bifurcation of the Basilar Artery

235
Q

What forms the anterior part of the Circle of Willis?

A

Right/Left Anterior Cerebral Arteries
-One of two terminal branches of the Internal Carotid Arteries are joined by the Anterior Communicating Artery

Right/Left Posterior Communicating Arteries

  • Branch off Internal Carotid Arteries just proximal to terminal branches
  • Join Internal Carotid Arteries with Posterior Cerebral Arteries
  • Act as an anastomosis between the anterior arterial system (Internal Carotid Arteries) and the posterior arterial system (Vertebral Arteries)
236
Q

What is a stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident)?

A

Interruption of blood supply to a portion of the brain

237
Q

What is the most common site of a stroke?

A

Middle Cerebral Artery- A branch of the Internal Carotid Artery

238
Q

What are the hemodynamic risk zones?

A

Watershed Areas

239
Q

What areas of the brain are included in Watershed Areas?

A

areas of the brain that are located distal to primary distribution areas for anterior, posterior, and middle cerebral arteries

240
Q

What is blood flow like to watershed areas?

A

These areas only receive marginal blood flow because they receive blood via small anastomoses that link the ends of the cerebral arteries

241
Q

Watershed areas are the first to be deprived of blood flow in the event of what?

A

cerebral hypoprofusion

Example: Cerebral Watershed Infarct

242
Q

What is the primary purpose of studying the nervous system?

A

To understand the effects of nervous system lesions

243
Q

Define epidemiology

A

The study of disease occurrence in human populations

Looks for patterns of persons affected with a particular disease or disorder (Age, race, lifestyle, dietary habits, etc)

244
Q

What does epidemiology look at?

A

How:

  • Disease is spread
  • To control disease
  • To prevent disease
  • To eliminate disease
245
Q

What are the 2 Measures of Disease Frequency?

A

incidence: number of new cases of a disease in a given population during a specified time
prevalence: number of existing cases of a disease in a population at a given point in time

246
Q

Define disease

A

A deviation from normal structure or function of any part, organ or system (or combination of these) of the body

247
Q

How is disease characterized by?

A

An etiologic agent or agents

A group of signs and symptoms

Consistent anatomic alterations

A cause, pathogenesis and prognosis which may be know or unknown

248
Q

Define syndrome

A

A collection of signs and symptoms that is characteristic of a specific disease state

249
Q

What is a lesion?

A

An area of abnormal tissue

May be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer)

250
Q

What is a neoplasm?

A

A new abnormal mass of tissue

Can be benign or malignant

251
Q

What is a tumor?

A

An abnormal growth resulting from uncontrolled cellular proliferation

A commonly used term for neoplasm

252
Q

What is cancer?

A

Another word for a malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm

253
Q

What is malignancy?

A

A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and can invade nearby tissues

254
Q

What are the 3 lesion classifications?

A

Focal lesion

Multifocal lesion

Diffuse lesion

255
Q

What is a focal lesion?

A

A lesion limited to a single location

Example: Spinal Cord Tumor

256
Q

What is a Multifocal Lesion?

A

Multiple, individual lesions are separated by normal intervening tissue

Example: A tumor that has metastasized to several locations

257
Q

What is a Diffuse Lesion?

A

A lesion that is dispersed over a large area with no distinct mass

Example: Traumatic axonal injury and diffuse cerebral edema

258
Q

What are the 2 components of a Neurological Evaluation?

A

History

Examination

259
Q

What is the purpose of a Neurological Evaluation?

A

To determine the probable cause of the neurological problem so that appropriate care can be provided

260
Q

What is the purpose of getting history in a Neurological Evaluation?

A

Used to identify the symptoms that led the person to seek care

Knowing speed of onset and expected patterns of progression for each category of pathology is critical for recognizing when a client’s signs and symptoms require referral to a medical practitioner

261
Q

How does knowing the speed of onset and pattern of progression for a neurological disease help with a Neurological Evaluation?

A

Provide important clues to the cause of nervous system dysfunction

262
Q

What does the Clinical Course of a Disease

describe?

A

the evolution of a disease

263
Q

What are the stages of a disease?

A

Acute Condition: Minutes to hours

Chronic Condition: Months to years

Subacute Condition: Few days

264
Q

Describe the acute condition of a disease?

A

Minutes to hours

Relatively severe manifestations such as

  • High Fever
  • Severe Pain

Develops quickly

Runs a short course

265
Q

Describe the Chronic condition of a disease?

A

Months to years

Course of the disease may be:

  • Continuous: Lasting months or years
  • Recurring including periods of Exacerbations (period where there’s a sudden increase in the signs and symptoms or severity of a disease) and Remissions (period where there’s a decrease in the signs and symptoms or severity of a disease)
266
Q

Describe the Subacute condition of a disease?

A

Few days

In between acute and chronic

Not as severe as acute

Not as prolonged as chronic

267
Q

What is the indications for acute, subacute, and chronic onset for Neurologic Conditions?

A

Acute Onset: Usually indicates a vascular problem

Subacute Onset: Often indicates an inflammatory process

Chronic Onset: Suggests a tumor or degenerative disease

268
Q

What are the categories of Patterns of progression?

A

Stable

Improving

Worsening

Fluctuating

269
Q

Specific tests for Neurological Examinations

are performed to the assess function of what?

A

Sensory System

Motor System

Autonomic System

270
Q

Define diagnosis

A

The identification a specific disease or condition

271
Q

What is involved in the process of determining a diagnosis?

A

Obtaining a patient history

Performing an examination

Evaluating signs and symptoms

Performing diagnostic tests such as

  • Laboratory Tests
  • Radiographic Studies
  • CT Scan
  • MRI
272
Q

What is the function of the primary motor cortex?

A

voluntary control of skeletal muscles

273
Q

What is the function of the primary sensory cortex?

A

conscious perception of touch, pressure, pain, vibration, taste, and temperature

274
Q

What is the function of the visual cortex?

A

conscious perception of visual stimuli

275
Q

What is the function of the auditory cortex?

A

conscious perception of auditory (hearing) stimuli

276
Q

What is the function of the olfactory cortex?

A

conscious perception of olfactory (smell) stimuli

277
Q

What is the function of the association areas?

A

integration and processing of sensory data; processing and initiation of motor activities

278
Q

What is the function of the thalamus?

A

relay and processing centers for sensory information

279
Q

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

A

centers controlling emotions, autonomic functions, and hormone production

280
Q

What is the function of the midbrain?

A

processes visual and auditory data

generates reflexive somatic motor responses

maintenance of conciousness

281
Q

What is the function of the pons?

A

relays sensory info to cerebellum and thalamus

subconscious somatic and visceral motor centers

282
Q

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

A

relays sensory info to thalamus and other portions of the brain stem

autonomic centers for regulation of visceral function (cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive system activities)

Neuroscience (3 decks)

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