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Neurology physiology > Intro to CNS , Neurotransmitters and BBB > Flashcards

Intro to CNS , Neurotransmitters and BBB Flashcards

1
Q

List the 5 major areas of the CNS

A 
1- Spinal Cord 
2- Brainstem 
3- Diencephalon 
4- Cerebellum 
5- Cerebral hemispheres ( telencephalon )
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2
Q

What is the role of the spinal cord

A

Receives afferent sensory information and transmits the info to reflex centres in itself or in the brainstem, cerebellum or cerebral hemispheres.
Transmits efferent information from brain to somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

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3
Q

Anatomically describe the spinal cord

A
  • Thin , cylinder like structure located in the vertebral canal.
  • exits the base of skull via the foramen magnum
  • has a conical shaped, caudal end called conus medullaris.
  • thin layer of Pia extends from conus medularris called hilum terminale.
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4
Q

At what vertebral level is the conus medullaris in an adult ? What about a child ?

A

Adult : L1- L2

Child : L3

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5
Q

What is the most rostral region of the Spinal cord

A

Cervical Cord

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6
Q

List how many pairs of spinal nerves the cervical, thoracic, lumbar , sacral and coccygeal regions have

A 
Cervical : 8 
Thoracic: 12 
Lumbar: 5 
Sacral: 5 
Coccygeal: 1
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7
Q

Since the spinal cord ends at L2 what does that mean for the lumbar and sacral nerve roots

A

They have to descend in the vertebral canal before exiting from respective foramina

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8
Q

What surrounds the filum terminale ?

This leads to the formation of what ?

A

Lumbrosacral nerve roots surround filum terminale, forming a cluster called caudal equina

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9
Q

Why does the spinal cord enlarge in the cervical and lumbosacral regions

A

to accommodate for the increased number of motor neurons to supply the arms and legs

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10
Q

What does the grey matter and white matter of the spinal cord contain

A

Grey matter: nerve cell bodies ( ventral and dorsal horns )

White matter : longitudinal tracts of myelinated axons ( ascending & descending pathways)

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11
Q

List the sections of the spinal cord grey matter and their purpose

A

Dorsal ( posterior ) horn : contains sensory relay neurons that receive input form periphery

Ventral ( anterior ) horn: contains motor nuclei that innervate specific muscles

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12
Q

What is in the forebrain

A

1- Telencephalon

2- Diencephalon

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13
Q

What is in the midbrain

A

Mesencephalon

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14
Q

What is in the Hindbrian

A

1- Metencephalon

2- Myelencephalon

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15
Q

Anatomically describe the brainstem

A

Brainstem is immediately above the spinal cord and connect the spinal cord with cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum

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16
Q

List 3 broad functions of brainstem

A

1- Conduit for ascending and descending tracts of SC , connects them to higher centres in brain
2- contains important reflex centres
3- contains important nuclei of cranial nerves 3 to 7

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17
Q

The brainstem consists of what three areas

A

1- Midbrain
2- Pons
3- Medulla Oblongata

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18
Q

What is the purpose of the Midbrain

A

1- Contains somatic motor neurons that control eye movement. Neurons reside in CN 3 and CN 4

2- contains neurons responsible for reflex movements of eyes, head, neck in response to visual or auditory signals

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19
Q

Where will nerve fibres from CN III reside and what is the purpose

A

Will reside in Edginer-Westphal nucleus ( accessory oculomotor nucleus ).

Purpose: responsible for pupillary diameter , accommodation of lens and convergence of eyes

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20
Q

What is the purpose of Pons

A

1- contains somatic neurons controlling mastication ( CN V ) , eye movement ( CN VI ) and muscles of facial expression ( CN VII )

2- receives somatic sensory info from face, scalp , mouth and nose ( CN V )

3- processes info related to hearing and equilibrium ( CN VIII )

4- Has apneustic and penumotaxic centre to prevent apneusis by coordinating respirations

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21
Q

What is apneusis

A

sustained gasping inhalation followed by short inefficient exhalation

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22
Q

What is the purpose of the medulla oblongata

A

1- contains nuclei of somatic motor neurones that innervate neck ( CN XI ) and tongue ( CN XII)

2- contains nuclei controlling respiration ( CN X )

3- contains cycle involved in BP, HR and digestions ( CN IX , CN X )

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23
Q

What is the Diencephalon

A

Thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus

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24
Q

How many thalami are there

A

2 thalami , one on each side of third ventricle

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25
Q

Is the thalamus made of grey or white matter

A

Grey

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26
Q

Explain the purpose of the thalamus

A

1- Main integrating station for sensory information found for cerebral cortex ( except olfaction )

2- subcortical structures and cerebellum project to thalamus on their way to cortex to influence upper motor neurons for motor output

3- involved in arousal and aspects of memory function

4- anterior nucleus part of limbic system

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27
Q

Explain he purpose of the hypothalamus

A

1- central regulator of autonomic and endocrine functions

2- specialized centres involved in food intake, fluid and electrolyte balance, body temperature, sleep cycle and circadian rhythm

3- specialized hypothalamic neurons synthesis hormones and transport to posterior pituitary gland & releasing hormones to anterior pituitary

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28
Q

What part of the Brian affects the autonomic nervous system the most

A

Hypothalamus

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29
Q

How does the hypothalamus perform it’s functions

A

Has strong, direct connections to autonomic nuclei in brainstem and spinal cord

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30
Q

Explain the purpose of the epithalamus

A

1- Consists of habenular nucleus that’s the centre for integration of olfactory, visceral and somatic afferent pathways

2- has pineal gland that releases hormones ( melatonin, serotonin, noradrenaline )

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31
Q

Where is the cerebellum

A

Immediately dorsal ( upper ) to brainstem

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32
Q

Explain the purpose of the brainstem

A

1- receives peripheral information regarding proprioception , muscle tone, position of head and the environment. Compares and integrates information with plans of movement received from cortex

2- predict consequence of movement through feed forward mechanisms. coordinator and predictor of movement.

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33
Q

List three major cerebellum functions

A

1- Movements properly grouped for performance of selective responses that require specific adjustments

2- maintains upright posture

3- maintains muscle tone

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34
Q

What is the cerebral cortex

A

Covers the entire surface of brain.
Highly folded and forms gyro and sulci.
Divided into 4 lobes : frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

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35
Q

Functional areas of cerebral cortex aka ?

A

Brodmann’s areas

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36
Q

What is the frontal lobe

A

Frontal lobe is located infront of the central sulcus. Contains the primary motor, supplementary motor, premotor and prefrontal area.

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37
Q

Where is the primary motor located

A

Just infront of the central sulcus

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38
Q

Where is the precentral gyrus and what does It contain.

A

On lateral surface of each frontal lobe, anterior to central sulcus. Runs parallel to central sulcus and extends to the precentral sulcus.

Contains the primary motor cortex

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39
Q

Explain the role of the precentral gyrus

A

Left hemisphere sends motor commands to right side of body. High hemisphere sends motor commands to left side. Cluster of motor neurons that use somatotopy, form motor homunculus

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40
Q

What is a motor homunculus

A

a topographic ( map ) representation of body parts in the precentral gyrus of frontal lobe. Shows which areas of the brain are dedicated to motor process different areas in the body.

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41
Q

What determines the neuron pool supplying the musculature of a body part ( in precentral gyrus )

A

The size of the body part and the precise movement required from it. The more motor units a body part has the more space it will take up in precentral gyrus.

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42
Q

Which body part has a larger cortical representation , the hand or trunk

A

The hand because precise movement of hand require innervation of many muscles and fibres

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43
Q

Explain the supplementary motor area in frontal lobe

A

Contains motor maps for posture , and premotor association area.

Has a role in anticipating or planning voluntary movement

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44
Q

Explain the premotor area in the frontal lobe

A

Contains motor maps for movement of larger muscle groups.

Important in higher order processing and integrating/interpreting motor information and activity.

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45
Q

What will light up ( activate ) prior to activation of primary motor area

A

Supplementary motor area

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46
Q

What is the role of the prefrontal area of the frontal lobe

A

1- extensive connections with parietal, occipital and temporal lobe via fasciculi = access to sensory processing and memory

2- Monitors behaviour and controls higher processes : judgement , emotion , motivation , personality, initiative, concentration and social inhibitions

3- Intelligence ( problem solving )

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47
Q

Where are expressive/ motor aspects of language processed

A

Later surface of frontal lobe in Broca’s motor speech area

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48
Q

What is the central sulcus

A

Divides the frontal lobe from parietal lobe.
Anterior to it : precentral gyrus
Posterior to it : post central gyrus

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49
Q

What is the lateral sulcus

A

Divides the frontal and parietal lobe from the Temporal lobe

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50
Q

What is the parietal occipital sulcus

A

Divides parietal lobe from occipital lobe. Can be seen from medial view of Brain

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51
Q

What is the calcarine sulcus

A

Divides the occipital lobe from the temporal lobe

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52
Q

List the sulcuses dividing the lobes of the cerebrum

A

1- Cental
2- Lateral
3- Parietal occipital
4- Calcarine

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53
Q

What is the largest lobe of the Brain

A

The frontal brain

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54
Q

Does the prefrontal area of frontal lobe elicit movement

A

No

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55
Q

Nerves with the nervous system are called what

A

Fasciculi

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56
Q

Where is the parietal lobe located and what does it house

A

Posterior to the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus.

Houses the primary somatosensory area and Wernickes’ area

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57
Q

Explain the purpose of the Parietal lobe

A

1- Important in regulating somatosensory functions

2- Initial cortical processing

3- pain perception

4- temperature and proprioception

5- spatial orientation and perception

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58
Q

What’s the percentage of cerebral hemispheres taken up by association areas

A

75%

59
Q

What is proprioception

A

Knowing where your limbs are at any point of time

60
Q

What is Wernickes’ area responsible for

A

Receptive or sensory aspects of language

61
Q

What is the somatosensory association area is responsible for

A

Interpretation the significance of sensory information

62
Q

Lesion in the somatosensory association area can cause which complications

A

1- Tactile agnosia: Deficit in ability to combine tough, pressure and proprioceptive input to interpret the significance of the sensory information.

2- Astereognosis: inability to recognize and object placed in hand

63
Q

What is the purpose of the Occipital lobe

A

1- processing of visual information

64
Q

Where are the visual association areas

A

Surrounding and covering the lateral surface of occipital lobe

65
Q

Explain how the primary visual cortex receives information

A

Neurons from the retina project to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus which sends fibres ( aka optic radiations ) to the primary visual cortex )

66
Q

What is the role of the visual association area

A

Gives meaning and interpretation to what is seen

67
Q

A lesion in the the visual association area can result in what complications

A

Vision agnosia: Deficit in ability to recognize objects in the opposite visual fields despite intact vision.
Deficit in tracking objects ipsilateraly

68
Q

The occipital lobe is separated from the parietal lobe via

A

The Parieto-occipiutal sulcus

69
Q

The occipital lobe is separated from the temporal lobe via

A

The calcarine sulcus ( seen on medial brain surface )

70
Q

What is the purpose of the temporal lobe

A

Processing of auditory information and some aspects of memory function

71
Q

How is each ear represented on the auditory cortex

A

Bilaterally

72
Q

How are the neurons in the primary auditory cortex organised

A

In a tonotopic arrangement that’s similar to the tonotopy of the cochleae

73
Q

Where are the auditory association areas

A

Superior temporal gyrus, adjacent to the primary auditory area

74
Q

What is the role of the auditory association areas

A

Interprets sounds heard and gives it meaning

75
Q

A lesion in the temporal lobe can mean ….

A

Word deafness.

Acute verbal agnosia : compromise of ability to interpret what is heard

76
Q

Which part of the temporal lobe is responsible for perception of language

A

The lateral surface

77
Q

What are the anterior medial areas of the temporal lobe responsible for

A

Learning memory and emotion

78
Q

Where is Broca’s area located

A

Inferior frontal gyrus in the left hemisphere

79
Q

What is the role of Broca’s area

A

Generation of language ( written/ spoken/signed ). Produces symbols, signs or words for concepts, objects or ideas.

80
Q

A lesion in Broca’s area can result in …

A

Broca’s aphasia : difficulty generating written/spoken language but little difficulty with language comprehension

81
Q

Where is Wernicke’s area

A

Superior surface of temporal gyrus in the left hemisphere

82
Q

What is the role of Wernicke’s area

A

Comprehension of signed and spoken language. Interpretation and assigning of meaning to symbols.

83
Q

A lesion in Wernicke’s area can result in ..

A

Wernicke’s aphasia: difficulty understanding written/spoken language. Person can speak but the language is meaningless unconnected words.

84
Q

What is the role of the Olfactory cortex

A

Smell

85
Q

What is the limbic association cortex and where is it located

A

Association area for behavioural regulation ( emotions, learning , memory) .
Located in the forebrain , under the medial temporal lobe

86
Q

What is the Diencephalon

A

Series of paired structures located deep within the cerebral hemispheres, on either side of the third ventricle.
Made of Thalamus, Epithalamus, Subthalamus and Hypothalamus

87
Q

What is the largest structure in the Diencephalon

A

Thalamus

88
Q

What is the role of the thalamus

A

The sensory switchboard. All sensory information goes to the thalamus where it will then be sent to appropriate areas of Brian. Auditory and visual information is sent through there

89
Q

What are two big nerves that go through the thalamus

A

Optic nerve and Vestibular nerve

90
Q

Which sense does not go through the thalamus

A

Olfaction , the sense of smell

91
Q

What does the thalamus include

A

Hypothalamus, posterior pituitary and pineal gland

92
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamus

A

Controls homeostatic, autonomic and endocrine functions

93
Q

What is the Epithalamus and it’s role

A

Habenular nucleus: Regulates CNS neurotransmitters ( dopamine, serotonin) and behaviour of addictions and motivation
Pineal body : produced melatonin and maintains circadian rhythm

94
Q

What is the role of the limbic system

A

Structures that have a significant role in drive related and emotional behaviours. Memory and learning.

95
Q

What does the limbic system consist of

A

A ring of cortex on medial surface of brain spacing across frontal, parietal, and temporal.
Structures include subcalossal, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampal formation, amygdaloid nucleus , mammillary bodies and anterior thalamic nucleus

96
Q

What are the deep forebrain structures of the limbic system located in the temporal lobe

A

The amygdala and hippocampus

97
Q

How is the limbic system able to influence emotional behaviour aspects

A

Through the hypothalamus, connection with autonomic nervous system outflow and control of endocrine system.

98
Q

What reactions are particularly controlled via the limbic system

A

Fear, Anger and emotions associated with sexual behaviour.

99
Q

What occurs in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus

A

Neurogensis: new cells believed to play a role in formation of new memories and modulating symptoms of stress and depression

100
Q

Where can neurogenesis occur in the CNS

A

1- Olfactory bulb

2- dentate gyrus of hippocampus

101
Q

What is the role of the hippocampus

A

Sends outputs to etorhinal cortex that has widespread reciprocal connections with association areas in cerebral cortex

102
Q

A lesion in the hippocampus results in ….

A

Anterograde amnesia: Affects ability to store long term memory , events before lesion are unaffected

103
Q

What is the location of the amygdala relative to the hippocampus

A

The amygdala is just superior to hippocampus

104
Q

What does the amygdala consist of

A

Functionally diverse nuclei. Receives sensory information, info from brainstem , input from thalamus and info from cortex.

105
Q

What sensory information is afferent to the amygdala

A

Visual , somatosensory , gustatory and olfactory information

106
Q

What connections does the amygdala have

A

Has connections to the thalamus and indirect connections to prefrontal cortex

107
Q

What is the role of the Amygdala

A

Ability to feel strong emotions, emotional memory, learning and drive related behaviours & processing of emotions related to these behaviours.
Recognition and interpretation of emotional behaviour or signals from others.

108
Q

What behaviours is the amygdala associated with

A

Fear ( fear memory ) and reward ( addiction and stress )

109
Q

Damage to the amygdala can result in …

A

Reduced or absent facilitation of attention and memory of emotional stimuli

110
Q

Where are the Basal nuclei

A

Located under the cortical layer

111
Q

What are the Basal nuclei

A

Masses of grey matter made of groups of interconnecting nuclei within the forebrain, midbrain and diencephalon

112
Q

What does the Basal nuclei include

A 
1- Caudate nucleus 
2- putamen 
3- globus pallidus 
4- sub thalamic nucleus 
5- substantia nigra
113
Q

What is the role of the basal nuclei

A

Basal nuclei along with cerebellum command the upper motor neurons which control movement.
Critical role in initiation and control of voluntary movement.

114
Q

What is the striatum

A

The caudate nucleus and putamen

115
Q

What is the lentiform body

A

The putamen and the globus pallidus

116
Q

What is the caudate nucleus

A

nucleus with its head lying on floor of lateral ventricle and body over the thalamus. Input nuclei to basal nuclei, receiving excitatory input from cortical and subcortical structures

117
Q

What is the putamen

A

Connected to caudate nucleus and serves as an input nuclei , receiving excitatory input from cortical and subcortical structures

118
Q

What is the globus pallidus

A

Output nucleus sending inhibitory neurons to thalamus. Located medial to putamen and lateral to thalamus.
Split into External ( GPe) and inner ( GPi) globus pallidus.

119
Q

Are GPe and GPi the same

A

No, they are functionally different and have different connections within basal nuclei.

120
Q

What is the subthalamic nucleus

A

Nucleus inferior to thalamus and superior to the tegmenjtum of midbrain. receives afferents from cortex and other basal nuclei structures. Output is excitatory to globus pallidus and substantia nigra.
Central role in basal nuclei connectivity and defines the nuclei’s rhythm

121
Q

How is the sub thalamic nucleus excitatory to globus pallidus and substantia nigra

A

Through glutaminergic neurons

122
Q

What is the Substantia Nigra

A

located in rostral midbrain in cerebral peduncle at level of superior colliculi. Contains dopaminergic neurons that project to putamen , caudate nucleus and sub thalamic nucleus.

123
Q

What can neurotransmitters be

A

amino acids, biogenic amines, purines or neuropeptides

124
Q

What releases ACh and what is its postsynaptic effect

A

Cholinergic neurons release ACh which have a excitatory effect in the PNS and CNS

125
Q

Which common amino acids are used as neurotransmitters in

A

Glutamate, Aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) , Glycine, Dopamine

126
Q

What is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS

A

Glutamte

127
Q

How is Glutamate synthesized

A

Synthesized in neurons from precursor glutamine spilled by astrocytes which produce glutamine from the glutamate they uptake from the synaptic cleft

128
Q

What are the most important inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS

A

GABA and glycine. Half of inhibitory synapse in spinal cord uses glycine

129
Q

When is Dopamine used as neurotransmitter

A

In forebrain circuits

130
Q

What is the role of Dopamine neurotransmitter

A

Could be excitatory ( via D1 receptor ) or inhibitory ( via D2 receptor.
Associated with movement, emotion, motivation and reward

131
Q

What’s the role of Adrenaline/ Noradrenaline

A

Excitatory effect , Both involved in wakefulness and attention.

132
Q

Does CNS use adrenaline or noradrenaline more

A

Noradrenaline

Concentration of adrenaline in CNS is much lower than Noradrenaline.

133
Q

What is the role of Histamine

A

Excitatory effect Involved in wakefulness

134
Q

What is Serotonin derived from

A

Derived from amino acid tryptophan

135
Q

What is the role of Serotonin

A

Could have a excitatory or inhibitory effect. Used in pathways regulating mood, emotion, sleep and serval homeostatic pathways.

136
Q

What is the role of neuropeptide Substance P

A

Excitatory effect involved in pain pathways

137
Q

What is the role of Metenkephalin or opioids

A

Involved in inhibitory effect of pain pathways

138
Q

What is the role of Adrenocorticotropin

A

Excitatory effect in CNS

139
Q

The smaller the molecule , the easier or harder for it to get through the BBB

A

The easier

140
Q

What will help a molecule pass the BBB

A

If it’s lipid soluble

141
Q

What is BBB permeable to

A

Water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, lipid soluble substances ( ex: steroid hormones ), alcohol, anaesthetics , electrolytes

142
Q

What is BBB impermeable to

A

plasma proteins, protein bound steroid hormones , non-lipid soluble large molecules.

143
Q

Where is the BBB not present

A

hypothalamus, pineal gland, area postrema ( in 4th ventricle ).

Neurology physiology (9 decks)

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