Intro Notes Flashcards
Anatomy
Study of structure
Gross Anatomy V. Microanatomy
GA- structures that can be seen without a microscope
MA- structures that need a microscope
Regional Anatomy V. Systemic anatomy
RA-orders the body as major segments
SA-orders the body in organ systems
Clinical (appplied) anatomy
Emphasizes aspects using structure and function that are important in health sciences. Uses regional and systemic approaches
Surface anatomy
Study of what lies under the skin and what structures via touch (palpation)
Anatomical position
Head, eyes, and toes directed anteriorly (forward)
Arms adjacent to the sides with palms facing anteriorly
Lower limbs fairly close together with the feet parallel
Median plane (median sagittal; midsagittal plane )
Goes through longitudinally thru the midline of the body dividing the body into equal parts
Sagittal planes
Vertical planes pass thru the body dividing the body into left and right parts
Frontal planes (coronal)
Vertical planes passing thru the body which divide the body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse planes
Horizontal planes passing thru the body dividing it into superior and inferior parts
Longitudinal sections
Runs lengthwise or parallel to the long axis of the body or its parts
Transverse (cross) sections
Slices of the body or its parts that are cut at right angles to the longitudinal axis
Superior v. Inferior
S- near the topmost point of the cranium
I- Near the sole of the foot
Posterior (dorsal) V. Anterior (ventral)
P-back surface of the body or near it
A- Front surface of the body or near it
Medial V. Lateral
M-Near the median plane of body
L- farther away from the median plane of body
Superficial v. Deep
S- near body’s surface
D- far from body’s surface
Proximal V. Distal
P- near attachment of a limb
D- Far from attachment of a limb
Dorsum
Protrudes anteriorly from body
Plantar
Surface of foot (the sole)
Bilateral V. Unilateral
B- right & left structures (paired)
U- one side only (no pair)
Ipsilateral V. Contralateral
I- on the same side of the body as another structure
C- opposite side of the body relative to another
Flexion V. Extension
F- bending or decreasing the angle btwn bones or parts
E-straightening or increasing angle btwn bones or parts
Dorsiflexion V Plantarflexion
D- flexion at the ankle joint (heels down)
P- bends the foot down, heels up
Hyperextension
Extension of a limb or part beyond the normal limit
Abduction V. Addiction
Ab- moving away from median plane
Add- moving towards the median plane
Rotation
Medial rotation
lateral rotation
R- Turning a part of the body around its longitudinal axis
MR- brings the anterior surface of a limb closer
LR-takes the anterior surface away from the median plane
Circumduction
A circular movement wh/ involves multiple movements wh/ cause the body to move in a circle
Lateral flexion
An abduction only the neck & trunk which get directed anteriorly wh/ causes the midline of the body to become bents sideways
Pronation V. Supination
P- rotates medially so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly & it’s dorsum faces anteriorly
S- rotates the radius latterly & uncrosses it from ulna wh/ returns it to anatomical position
Eversion v. Inversion
E- Move the sole of the foot away from the median plane
I- move the sole of the foot towards the median plane
Protrusion V. Retrusion
P- anteriorly protruding the chin, lips or tongue
R- opposite, double chin
Protraction V. Retraction
P- Anterolateral movement of the scapula on the thoracic wall
R- opposite
Tissue
An organized, recognizable collection of cells, material between cells that function as a unit
Epithelium
Cells are closely packed w/ very little intercellular matrix
Free surface not in contact w/ other cells
Protection, secretin, absorption
Connective tissue
Intracellular matrix that contains collagenous, elastic, and or reticular fibers, 3 types
Hyaline cartilage
fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage
HC- found in ribs, nose, larynx, trachea; precursor of bone tissue
FC- very strong, found in intervertebral discs, joint capsules, ligaments
EC- imparts elasticity to an organ; found in external earl, epiglottis, & larynx
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
M- long slender cells- muscle fibers- ability to contract in order to produce movements of body parts
N- made of neurons and neuroglia (glial cells)
Viscera
Organs w/in the ventral body cavity.
Not applied to blood or lymphoid vessels or nerves
Skin
Two main layers are epidermis and dermis
Epidermal layers
Epithelial tissue- keratinized
Superficial layer- provides protection, tough horny layer
Basal layer-pigmented
Dermis
Mostly connective tissue with interlacing elastic & collagen fibers
Highly vascular
Subcutaneous
-AKA superficial fascia
- deep to the dermis
-consists of loose connective tissue & stored fat
Hair follicles
Arrector (arrector pili) muscle
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands
-produce hair s & regulate hair glrowth
-contraction erects hairs and causes goose bumps
-secrete oily product onto hair and skin surface
- produce a watery secretion, evaporation aids heat loss
Sensory receptors
Arterioles
- Meissner’s corpuscles, for detecting light touch
-dilation or constriction promotes heat loss or retention, respect
Integumentary system functions
Protection
Containment for body’s tissues, organs, & fluids
thermoregulation
Sensation
Synthesis & storage of Vitamin D
Fascias
Superficial fascia
Deep fascia
-constitute the wrapping, packing, & insulating material of the deep structures of the body
- is subcutaneous tissue
-dense, organized connective tissue layer, devoid of fat, covers most of the body parallel to the skin & subcutaneous tissue
Investing fascia
Intermuscular septa
Subserous fascia
Retinacula
- covers or “clothes” individual muscles & neuromuscular bundles
-divide muscles into groups - contained w/in fascia compartments- & extend centrally to attach to bones - lies between musculoskeletal walls & serous membranes lining body cavities
- hold tendons in place during joint movements
Bursa
Tendon sheath
- a closed normally collapsed, sac of serous membrane- secreting fluid to lubricate a internal surface- allows one structure to move freely over another; near joints or between bone
- an elongated bursa, wrapped around tendon, anchors tendon in place
Skeletal System Functions
-Support
-protection for vital structures
-Mechanical basis for movements
-Storage for salts
-a continuous supply of new blood cells
Skeletal system
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
-composed of cartilages & bones
- bones of the head, neck, trunk
- the limbs, girdles, attach limbs bones
Lone bones
Short bones
flat bones
Irregular bones
Sesamoid bones
-tubular (ex: femur)
-Cuboidal (ex: wrist & ankle)
-Usually protective (Ex: cranial bones)
-not long, short, or flat they stick out (ex: vertebrae)
- develop in tendons, where tendons cross ends of long bones of limbs (ex: patella)
Cartilage
Bone
Periosteum
Articular Cartilage
-semirigid, avascular CT; forms parts of skeleton where flexibility is required
-living, highly specialized, hard form of CT
-fibrous CT covers each bone except with articulating surfaces (called perichondrium in a cartilage)- tendons & ligaments
-smooth, low-friction surface for movement of bone- such as ball & sock joints
Tendons V. Ligaments
Tendons = muscles to bone
Ligaments = bones to bones
Spongy (trabecular) bone
Compact one
Red/yellow bone marrow
-formed from spicules (trabeculae), more or larger spaces, central mass of bone, replaced via medullary cavity (towards middle), deep to compact bone
-fewer & smaller spaces, superficial thin layer surrounds spongy, provides strength for weight bearing
-found w/in medullary cavity (yellow = fatty) & between spicules of spongy (red = blood & other cells)
Body
Capitulum
Condyle
Epicondyle
- mass of a bone (= shaft)
-small, round, articular head (joints connect) - rounded, knuckle-like articular area occurs in pairs
- eminence superior or adjacent to a condyle
Crest
Facet
Foramen
Fissure
-ridge of bone
-smooth flat area, usually covered with/ cartilage, bone articulates w/ another bone
-slit-like passage thru bone
Groove
Head
Line
Neck
Notch
-elongated depression or furrow
-large, round articular end
-linear elevation, sometimes a ridge
-narrow portion adjacent to the head
-indentation @ edge of a bone
Process
Protuberance
Spine
-an extension or projection from a bone
-bulge or projection of a bone
-thorn-like process
Trochlea
Tubercle
Tuberosity
-spool-like articular process, acts as a pulley
-raised eminence
-rounded elevation
What’s Mesenchyme
embryonic CT (all bones develop from this)
Intramembranous ossification V. Endochondral ossification
IO- mesenchyme -> bone; embryonic -> fetal period
EO-Mesenchyme -> cartilage -> bone
Endochondral Ossification steps
- Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts -> forms cartilaginous model
- Mid-region of bone starts to calcifies, blood vessels & bone-forming cells = primary ossification center-> bone tissue replaces cartilage-> diaphysis
- Secondary Ossification center appears at ends of bones forming the epiphyses
- Epiphyseal plate (Growth plates) lie between diaphysis & epiphyses where growth of bone occurs -> diaphysis & epiphyses don’t fuse until adult size is reached
- Once adult size is reached the fusion or seam where diaphysis & epiphyses fused is called epiphysial line
Articulation (Joint)
Junction between 2 or more bones , 3 classifications based on structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, & synovial) & function (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, & diarthrosis)
Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
- contains no joint cavity & have articulating bones held via fibrous CT- 3 subtypes
-contain no joint cavity & have articulating bones held together via cartilage (2 subtypes)
Synovial joints
- articulating joints united via joint (articular) capsule composed of a fibrous layer via serous membrane (synovial membrane). -6 subtypes
-Joint capsule spans & encloses a fluid-filled space called joint cavity (joint space; articular cavity)
-joint cavity contains synovial fluid
-joint reinforced by several ligaments either extrinsic (separate from joint) or intrinsic (thicken portion of joint)
-free movement of articulating bones , some have fibrocartilaginous articular disc (meniscus)
Suture
Syndesmosis
Gomphosis
-found in cranium, extremely short lengths of fibrous tissue btwn bones that they are held close together, either interlocking or overlapping- no movement
- bones united along a sheet of fibrous tissue, either a ligament or fibrous membrane, allows for slight movement
-found btwn the root of a tooth & socket of a jawbone, peg-like process held into a socket by short fibrous tissue
-Subtypes of fibrous joints
Synchondrosis
Symphysis
-uniting cartilage is hyaline , found between epiphysis & diaphysis of a growing bone, joint is usually temporary & essentially allows no movement
-uniting cartilage is fibrocartilage, allows slight movement
-Subclasses of cartilaginous joints
Plane joints
Hinge joints
Saddle joints
*subs of synovial
-opposed surfaces of bones R flat or almost, tight joint capsules, permit limited gliding/sliding movements in plane of articular surfaces (most intercarpal joints of wrist)- uniaxial
-joint capsule is thin & lax anteriorly & posteriorly where laterally placed collateral ligaments, flexion & extension-uniaxial
-shaped like a saddle (opposing articular); allow abduction & addiction as well as flexion & extension, bilateral (thumb)
Condyloid joints
Ball & socket Joints
Pivot joints
-allow flexion & extension AWA abduction & adduction, movement in one plane is usually greater than the other plane, (fingers)- ~ biaxial
-spheroidal surface of one bone moves w/in the socket of another, multiaxial
-rounded process of bone rotates w/in a sleeve or ring, allows rotation around central axis. Uniaxial
*synovial joints subs
Synarthrosis
Amphiarthrosis
Diarthrosis
-joint allowing no movement (skull joints)
-joint allowing slight movement (intervertebral disc)
-a joint allowing free movement, subclasses (3)
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
-allow movement only in one plane around single axis
-allow movement in only two planes
-movement in multiple planes
Vasculature & innervation of Joints
- joints receive blood from articular arteries often anastomose (commuicate) form networks of arteries
-synovial joints R drained via articular veins originating synovial membrane
-innervated with nerves, transmit sensations of pain & of proprioception, Hilton Law states nerves that supply a joint supplies the muscle
Skeletal (skeletal striated) muscle
Smooth muscle
Cardiac (cardiac striated) muscle
-cylindrical, very long, multinucleated, striated, typically voluntarily controlled, usually attached to bones
-Cells are shorter than skeletal, spindle-shaped, unstriated, single nucleus, not controlled voluntarily, found in walls of hollow organs
-cells are shorter than skeletal muscle, branched, striated, single nucleus, not controlled voluntarily, found in heart
Somatic muscles
Visceral muscles
-located in the body wall & limbs
-located in the walls of the blood vessels & in walls of hollow organs of the body cavities
Head (belly)
Aponeurosis
Origin
Insertion
-reddish, fleshy, contractile part
-broad, flat, sheet-like tendon
-less movable point of attachment of a muscle to skeleton
-more movable point of attachment of a muscle to skeleton
Muscle cells are:
Fascicles are:
Sarcolemma is:
Muscle fibers
Muscle fibers bound together
Plasma membrane of an individual muscle fiber
Epimysium (investing fascia)
Perimysium
Endomysium
-surrounds the entire muscle
-surrounds each fascicle
- surrounds each muscle fiber
Flexor
Extensor
Abductor
Adductor
-muscle contracts producing flexion
-produces extension
-produces abduction
-produces adduction
Levator
Depressor
Tensor
Rotator
-produces upper movement of a body part
-produces downward movement of a body part
-makes a body part more rigid
-moves a bone around its longitudinal axis
Pennate Muscles
Fusiform muscles
Convergent muscles
Fiber or fascicle arrangement is feather-like
Spindle shaped with a round, thick belly & tapered ends
Arise from a broad area & converge to form a single tendon
Quadrate muscles
Circular or sphincteral muscles
Multiheaded or multibellied muscles
-have four nearly equal sides
-surround a body opening or orifice, constricts when contracted
-more than one head of attachment or more than one contractile belly
Reflexive contraction
Tonic contraction
Phasic contraction
RC-Activity of many muscles is automatic (reflexive) & not voluntary- knee jerk
TC- even when relaxed the muscle is slightly contracted (TC or. Muscle tone), only when conscious, doesn’t produce movement or active resistance but gives it firmness- stability
PC- two types isometric & isotonic
Isometric contraction
Isotonic contraction
IMC- muscle length remains the same- no movement; but force (muscle tension) is increased to resist gravity or other force-
IC- Muscle changes length in relationship to produce movement (2 types)
Concentric contraction
Eccentric contraction
CC- movement occurs as a result of shortening (moving towards origin)
EC- a contracting muscle lengths (relaxation)
*When the main muscle = prime mover; undergoes concentric contraction, its antagonist undergoes eccentric
Prime mover (agonist)
Fixator
Synergist
Antagonist
PM-main muscle responsible for sp. movement
F-steadies/fixes proximal parts of a limb thru Isometric Contraction while movement occurs in distal parts
S-works with the prime mover either directly (same movement) or indirectly (fixator)
A- opposes the action, contracts eccentrically, relaxes
Pulmonary circulation V. Systemic circulation
PC- right half of heart to lungs to left half of heart
SC- left half of heart to all body tissues to right halt of heart
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
A-carries blood away form the heart, both elastic & muscle fibers in walls, branches into smaller tubes called arterioles
V-carries blood towards heart, thinner walls, contains valves (prevents backflow), smaller tubes called venules
C-connect arterioles to venules, does exchange/gas of substances, btwn tissues & blood
Tunica intima
Tunica media
Tunica Adventita
-inner lining consisting of a single layer of extremely flattened epithelial cells, the endothelium, supported via delicate CT
-middle layer consisting primarily of smooth muscle
-outer connective tissue layer or sheath
Accompanying veins
Vascular sheath
-(venae comitantes)- multiple veins that accompany deep arteries
- fascial sheath that surround accompanying veins & their deep arteries that they accompany
What’s Anastomosis
Arteriolovenular (arteriovenus) anastomosis
- communication btwn two blood vessels that would not normally be present. Often allows collateral circulation (alt blood pathways) *occurs more with veins that with arteries
-between a vein & artery; bypasses capillaries
Lymphoid (lymphatic) system
Drains surplus fluid, proteins, bacteria, debris; from extracellular spaces to bloodstream. Lack of drainage results in edema (swelling). Major part of body defense, foreign particles drain to lymph nodes and lymphocytes dispatch to area. Absorption & trans port of dietary fat via lacteals- R special lymphatic capillaries.
Lymphatic plexuses
-networks of lymphatic capillaries in extracellular (intracellular) spaces of most tissues. Formed via highly attenuated endothelium lacking basement membrane.- permeable to things that can’t enter blood capillaries. Fount where blood capillaries are; except in teeth, bone, marrow, & CNS.
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph trunks
Lymph nodes
- thin-walled with abundant valves body-wide to drain lymph from lymphatic capillaries.
-are large collecting vessels that receive lymph from vessels (lymphatic)
-small masses of lymphatic tissue that are located along the course of both superficial & deep lymphatic vessels; the lymph is filled via these nodes on its way to the cardiovascular system
Lymph
Lymphocytes
Lymphoid organs
-fluid that enters the lymph capillaries & conveyed via the vessels; usually clear, watery, slight yellow- similar composition of plasma
-circulating cells of the immune system that react against foreign invading material
-organs & body regions which are produced lymphocytes- thymus, RBM, spleen, tonsil, & lymphoid nodules in walls of digestive tract
Superficial lymphatic vessels V. Deep lymphatic vessels
-found in subcutaneous tissue converge towards & follows the veins of tissue, drain into deep lymphatic vessels
-accompany arteries of tissue, receive the lymph drainage of internal organs
Lymphatic trucks dump into:
Cisterna chyli
-Right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
-Lower 1/2 of body merge in abdomen forms a collecting sac
Why is the lymphoid system important clinically
Provides predictable route- find the source of cancer cells by following them, if you find a tumor in the lymph & its not the primary
Inflammation of lymphatic vessels &or enlargement of lymph nodes is indicator of injury, infection, disease
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Neurolemma
Epineurium
Nerve
The nervous system that is not the brain or spinal cord
-surround the axons of neurons
-includes fatty tissue, blood vessels, & lymphatics
-bundle of axons outside of the CNS, the CT holding bundle together & bld vessels (vasa nervorum) serving the whole strucutre
Axons are additionally surrounded via CT layers (deep -> superficial )
Endoneurium
Perineurium
Eppineurium
Myelinated nerve fiber V. Unmyelinated nerve fibers
-neurolemma consits of multi schwann cells sp to an individual axon, organized into a continuous serious of cells that form myelin
-multiple axons are separately “embedded” w/in cytoplasm of a single, Schwann cell- no myelin
Afferent (sensory) fibers
Efferent (motor) fibers
Ganglion
-of the PNS convey neural impulses TO the CNS from the sense organs and other parts of the body
-of the PNS convey neural impulses FROM the CNS to effector organs
- a collection of neuron cell bodies outside of the CNS, there are both motor (autonomic) ganglia & sensory ganglia
Somatic nervous System
- its Motor fibers (somatic) supply skeletal muscles
- its sensory fibers (somatic sensory, general sensory, fibers) supply the sensory receptors that detect temp, touch, pressure, and pain from the skin, skeletal muscle, tendons, & joints
Autonomic nervous system
-Its motor fibers (visceral efferent, or visceral motor, finer)- supply smooth muscles, cardiac muscle tissue, & glands
-its sensory fibers (visceral afferent, or visceral sensory, fibers) supply sensory receptors in viscera, blood vessels, & glands that detect pain (in viscera) and information about body’s internal environment (from receptors in hollow organs)
Sensory fibers are in:
Motor fibers are in:
-cranial or spinal sensory ganglia
-w/in CNS gray matter,first & second neurons are w/in CNS and outside CNS, respectively
Cranial nerves
Spinal (segmental) nerves
Posterior (dorsal) root
Anterior (ventral) root
Spinal nerve
-nerves exiting the cranium
-nerves exiting the vertebral column thru intervertebral foramina
-consists only of incoming SENSORY (afferent) fibers
-consists only of outgoing MOTOR (efferent) fibers
- Where the posterior & ventral roots combine
Posterior ramus
Anterior ramus
-supplies nerve fibers to synovial joints of the vertebral column, deep muscles of the back, & the overlying skin
-supplies nerve fibers to the much larger raining area: anterior & lateral regions of the trunk & upper & lower limbs a
*both of them are mixed- carry both sensory & motor fibers
Dermatome
-the unilateral area of the skin applied via single spinal nerve (left or right)
-you have double coverage so a single posterior root or spinal never damage rarely results in numbness over whole area
-Dermatomal innervation is important bc it allows clinician to determine wheaten a particular spinal nerve/spinal cord segment is functioning normally
