Intro

Question 1

A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common function and are similar in structure. The body is composed of four major types of tissues:

Answer 1

A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common function and are similar in structure. The body is composed of four major types of tissues:

1. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, body cavities and ducts, and forms glands (example: epidermis, the outermost layer of skin).
2. Connective tissue protects and supports the body and organs; it binds organs together, stores energy reserves as fat, and provides immunity (example: tendons, ligaments, bone, cartilage).
3. Muscle tissue provides movement and generation of force.
4. Nervous tissue initiates and transmits nerve impulses (signals) that help control and coordinate body activities.

Question 2

How important is connective tissue in the body? What are the two main categories?

Answer 2

The most abundant and most widely distributed tissue in the body.

1. Connective tissue proper (tendons, ligaments, fascia, dermis)
2. Specialized connective tissue (cartilage, bone, blood, adipose tissue i.e., fat).

Question 3

Connective tissue functions:

Answer 3

1. Binds together, supports and strengthens other tissues
2. Protects and insulates internal organs
3. Compartmentalizes certain structures (e.g., skeletal muscles) = fascia 4. Blood is a connective tissue that transports substances
4. Adipose tissue stores energy reserves

Question 4

General features of connective tissue:

Answer 4

1. Composed of cells separated by an extracellular matrix (fluid, gel or solid) and fibres including:

• collagen fibres, most abundant, provide strength to the tissue
• elastic fibres which provide strength and elasticity (i.e., arteries)• reticular fibres which provide support and strength

2. Has a nerve supply (except in cartilage)
3. Has a rich blood supply (except in cartilage and tendons)

Question 5

Specialized connective tissue – the two types present in the skeletal system are:

Answer 5

1. Cartilage
2. Bone

Question 6

Describe the cellular anatomy of cartilage. What are its three types?Give their fibers, proprieties and location.

Answer 6

Cells called chondrocytes are embedded in a gelatinous matrix that includes fibers - collagen fibers and elastic fibers. Cartilage is avascular and lacks nerves.

Hyaline cartilage

Fibrocartilage

Elastic cartilage

Question 7

Give the cellular anatomy of ossesous tissue (bones). What is the variety of major functions that bone tissue and the skeletal system have?

Answer 7

Contains osteocytes embedded in a rigid, calcified matrix that includes collagen fibers. Bone tissue and the skeletal system perform a variety of major functions:

1. support and protection
2. movement
3. mineral storage and release
4. site of hemopoiesis, occurs in red marrow
5. storage of energy (lipid storage) in yellow marrow

Question 8

What are the three types of muscle tissue and their characteristics?

Answer 8

There are three types of muscle tissue:

• Skeletal muscle: striated, voluntary, moves bones and in some cases skin and other soft tissues

• Cardiac muscle: striated, involuntary
• Smooth muscle: non-striated, involuntary

Question 9

Muscle tissue has four major functions:

Answer 9

1. movement of body parts or substances within the body
2. maintenance of posture
3. joint stabilization
4. heat generation

Question 10

Muscle tissue has four major characteristics that enable it to perform its functions:

Answer 10

Excitability (irritability) is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals called action potentials (impulses).

Contractility is the ability to shorten, thus generating force to do work.

Extensibility is the ability to be stretched without damaging the tissue.

Elasticity is the ability to return to its original shape after contraction or extension.

Question 11

Describe the anatomy of skeletal muscle.

Answer 11

1. Muscles are attached to bones by tendons (connective tissue).
2. In most cases but not always, the insertion is the movable portion, and the origin is the less movable attachment. We will use term attachments (proximal and distal).
3. Associated connective tissue provides protection and support; binds muscle fibres and bundles together.
4. Fascia binds muscles to overlying skin or binds groups of muscles together.

Question 12

What are the nerve and blood supply of muscles?

Answer 12

1. Motor neurons send impulses along axons that form neuromuscular junctions and stimulate muscle to contract.
2. Blood vessels deliver nutrients and oxygen to muscle and carry wastes and heat away from muscle.

Question 13

What is the anatomical position?

Answer 13

• person stands erect
• palms face anteriorly
• thumbs pointed away from the body

• toes point forward

Question 14

What are the reference planes?

Answer 14

Reference planes:

1. Sagittal
2. Frontal (= Coronal)
3. Transverse (= Cross section)

Question 15

What are the reference directions (5)?

Answer 15

Reference directions:

1. Anterior — Posterior
2. Superior — Inferior
3. Medial — Lateral
4. Proximal — Distal
5. Superficial — Deep

Question 16

What are the three types of joint by function?

Answer 16

Synarthroses = immovable joints

Amphiarthroses = slightly movable

Diarthroses = freely movable

Question 17

What are the three types of joints by structure?

Answer 17

1. Fibrous joints (suture, syndesmosis)
2. Cartilaginous (synchondrosis, symphysis)
3. Synovial

Question 18

What are two types of fibrous joints? Describe them.

Answer 18

Suture (‘”seam”): bones aretightly bound by a very small amount of fibrous tissue. Only between bones of the skull.

Syndesmosis: bones are connected by longer bands of fibrous tissues. Examples: between radius and ulna; large amount of movement possible. Distal tibiofibular joint – less movement because the connecting fibres are short.

Question 19

What are the two types of cartilaginous joints? Describe them.

Answer 19

Synchondrosis: hyaline cartilage connects the bones. Functionally are classified as synarthroses (immobile). Examples: epiphyseal plates, 1st rib’scartilage and manubrium of sternum.

Symphysis: fibrocartilage connects two bones. Examples: Symphysis pubis, symphysis menti, intervertebral discs.

Question 20

What are synovial joints? Name the five types.

Answer 20

3. Synovial joints

Synovial joints are the most movable joins in the body; all are diarthroses. Most joints in the body are synovial. All synovial joints have:

• Articular cartilage (hyaline) on the ends of articulating bones• Joint cavity – space that holds synovial fluid
• Articular capsule – encloses joint cavity
• Synovial fluid – viscous fluid inside the joint cavity

• Ligaments that reinforce the joint (intra- and extracapsular)

Question 21

Name and describe the seven main movements at synovial joints.

Answer 21

Flexion–decreasestheanglebetweenthebones

Extension–increasestheanglebetweenthebones

Abduction – moving (a limb) away from the body

Adduction – moving (a limb) toward the body

Circumduction - 1, 2, 3 and 4 combined (moving in a circle)

Rotation (medial and lateral) movement of the bone around the longitudinal axis

Gliding – sliding the flat surfaces of two bones across each other

Question 22

What are some of the special movements at synovial joints?

Answer 22

Special movements:

• elevation, depression, protraction, retraction (scapula, mandible)• supination, pronation (forearm)
• opposition (digits)
• inversion, eversion, dorsiflexion, plantarflexion (foot).

Question 23

Give some general rules regarding muscles and their function:

Answer 23

Muscle has to cross the joint to produce movement at that joint.

Muscles shorten when they contract.

Muscles cannot push, only pull.

Amount of shortening depends on fiber length and orientation. There is a trade-off between force vs. range of motion. Parallel fibers allow large range of motion; pennate fibers achieve maximal force.

Question 24

Muscles function as:

Answer 24

1. Prime movers (or agonists) – muscles that have a major responsibility for producing a specific movement.
2. Antagonists – produce opposite movements, i.e., work against one another. They usually lie on opposite sides of a joint (e.g., Biceps brachii and Triceps brachii).
3. Synergists – work together with other muscles, help the prime movers.4. Fixators – hold a bone firmly in place so that a prime mover can exert its

function (e.g., fix the scapula when the arm moves).

Note: Gravity acts as a prime mover!

Question 25

Give the different types of contractions:

Answer 25

I. Isometric (equal length): the muscle fibres contract and generate the same amount of force as the resistance and the length of the muscle does not change.

II. Isotonic (equal tension)

• Concentric: the muscle fibres contract and generate more force than the resistance and the muscle shortens.
• Eccentric: the muscle fibres contract and generate less force than the and the muscle lengthens. The muscle is active as it lengthens, so this is not the same as relaxing the muscle.

Question 26

The thoracic cage consists of:

Answer 26

Sternum (breastbone)

12 pairs of ribs

Costal cartilages

12 thoracic vertebrae

Question 27

Name the three parts of the sternum:

Answer 27

1. Manubrium (Gr. handle) with jugular (suprasternal) notch and sternal angle
2. Body - 4 fused sternebrae
3. Xiphoid process (xiphoid, Gr. sword-like)

Question 28

How many ribs do we normally have?

Answer 28

12 pairs

Question 29

Describe the main parts of a rib.

Answer 29

Parts: head (with articular facets), neck, tubercle, body (shaft), angle, costal groove, costal cartilage.

Question 30

Describe the regional differences that we find amongst ribs.

Answer 30

Regional differences:

o Ribs 1 – 7 (“true ribs”) attach anteriorly directly to the sternum through their costal cartilages.

o Ribs 8 - 10 (“false ribs”) do not join sternum directly, but are connected to the 7th rib through cartilage.

o Ribs 11 and 12 (“floating ribs”) do not attach tothe sternum.

Question 31

All ribs attach posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae (bodies). What are the two types of ribs, according to where they attach anteriorly. Which are they?

Answer 31

o Typical ribs (ribs #2-10): Head of a typical rib attaches to the body of the vertebra of the same number and the body of the vertebra above.

o Atypical ribs (ribs #1,11,12): only attach to their own vertebra (i.e., of the same number).

Question 32

How may thoracic vertebrae do we have and what are their main parts?

Answer 32

12 thoracic vertebrae

Parts: vertebral body (anterior) and vertebral arch; they enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. The vertebral arch carries vertebral processes.

Question 33

How many transverse processes do ribs #1-10 have? Where is situated the spinous process? How many facets?

Answer 33

Transverse processes (2) with a facet (articulation) for ribs #1-10

Question 34

What differenciates the 1st, 10th, 11th, and 12th vertebrae from the other thoracic vertebraes?

Answer 34

Articulation facets (*) for the head of rib on the bodies of vertebrae are full on the 1st, (10th), 11th and 12th vertebrae, but demi-facets on other thoracic vertebrae.

Question 35

Each typical rib (ribs 2-9) attaches to the three following parts:

Answer 35

1. Bodies of two vertebrae (via demi-facets): the corresponding vertebra., i.e., of

the same number, and the vertebra above,
2. Transverse process of the corresponding vertebra,

3. Sternum