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Stress and Distress > Intro > Flashcards

Intro Flashcards

1
Q

What historical views exist in terms of disease?

A
  • The idea of disease as coming from evil spirits.
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2
Q

What beliefs did the Ancient Greeks have in terms of disease?

A
  • They believed that the mind were connected to humours; the 4 humours must be balanced in order for the body to be healthy. (Black bile, phlegm, yellow bile, blood).
  • This belief lasted until the Scientific Revolution.
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3
Q

What is the mind-body dualism belief?

A
  • Physicians treat the body while Theologists tend to the mind.
  • Mental phenomena as non-physical as the mind and the body are separate. - Looks at the idea of multiple souls.
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4
Q

What is the Biomedial model?

A
  • The biomedical model focuses purely on biological factors (e.g. pathology, physiology and biochemistry) - 4 core elements.
  • Around since mid 19th century.
  • Predominant model in diagnosing disease.
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5
Q

What is the Biopsychosocial model?

A
  • The idea that stress can cause illness and stress related illnesses.
  • Includes biological and psychological factors.
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6
Q

What health issues can arise as a result of stress?

A
  • Heart disease, cancer, obesity, Alzheimer’s, diabetes, gastrointestinal problems, asthma.
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7
Q

Why is everyday stressors important?

A
  • While they can build up, what matters is how we deal with them.
  • Evidence: high stress to daily life rather than significant life events has a higher mortality rate.
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8
Q

Why can stress be good?

A
  • In terms of sports, it can be good - improves performance (arousal levels).
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9
Q

What is resilience and why is it useful?

A
  • Resilience is useful in helping people cope with daily hassles; if you’re more resilient, you’re better able to cope with problems that happen on the daily.
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10
Q

When can hassles be detrimental?

A
  • When one views them negatively e.g. stage fright.
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11
Q

What is illness?

A
  • Anything that restricts us physically or mentally.
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12
Q

What is health?

A
  • Health is experiencing a general sense of well-being, alongside an absence of symptoms of disease.
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13
Q

In terms of social representations of health, what is important to consider?

A
  • Having strong reserve-resources, strong family and quick recovery.
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14
Q

What is health behaviour defined as?

A
  • What a person does in terms of exercise, looking after oneself, physical fitness, and vitality.
  • The idea of feeling fit and energetic and maintaining good relationships.
  • Varies depending on age. `
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15
Q

What is psychosocial well-being defined as?

A
  • Having a sense of harmony and pride in oneself and one’s relationship with others - looks at the mental side of health.
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16
Q

How does one describe healthy functioning?

A
  • The ability to perform duties without restriction and the ability to fulfil social roles and relationships.
  • Unhealthy functioning can cause physical and mental worsening.
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17
Q

What is the definition of health?

What is wrong with this definition?

A
  • A state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and… not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. - WHO, 1947.
  • It’s extreme; could be a working definition but is not complete.
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18
Q

What is health psychology?

A
  • The study of health, illness and healthcare practices in a professional or personal manner.
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19
Q

What are the goals of health psychology?

A
  • The promotion and maintenance of health, improving healthcare systems and health policy and the prevention and treatment of illness, alongside the causes of illness-risk factors.
  • Looking at how to protect oneself against illness.
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20
Q

What influential factors exist in determining health?

A
  • Age, gender, where one lives, what money one earns, what one eats, drug use.
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21
Q

What are distal influences?

A
  • Distal influences are further away; look at socioeconomic status, age/gender and personality.
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22
Q

What are proximal influences?

A
  • They’re closer to oneself; look at attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and motives.
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23
Q

How does social class mediate the effects of health and illness?

A
  • There are differing attitudes between upper, lower and working class etc.
  • Differences in terms of political attitudes; poverty.
  • Differing attitudes of classes in terms of exercise and doctor visits; who can afford to visit the doctors more?
  • Richer social classes are more likely to be able to protect their health better.
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24
Q

What gender perceptions exist in mediating health? Consider smoking.

A
  • In the 50s women who smoked on screen were seen as cool, where as now smoking is no longer cool.
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25
Q

What mediating relationships exist in terms of age?

A
  • Age can cause variation in the beliefs that one holds.
  • Beliefs have changed in terms of drug use and ecstasy etc - more accepted amongst this age group. In the 60s there were arguments; attitudes were changing - youth then thought dope would lead to world peace etc.
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26
Q

What are Eysenck’s (1970) 3 factors of personality?

A
  • Introversion - Extraversion,
  • Psychoticism - Normality.
  • Neuroticism - Stability.
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27
Q

What are McCrae and Costa’s (1990) 5 factors of personality? (‘Big Five’)

A
  • Neuroticism - extraversion.
  • Openness.
  • Agreeableness.
  • Conscientiousness.
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28
Q

What is the openness and healthy diet idea?

A
  • Openness predicted healthy practices and a willingness to try novel situations and experience new food tastes.
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29
Q

What idea is associated with conscientiousness?

A
  • Positive health behaviour.
30
Q

Why is neuroticism associated with negative health behaviour and high use of healthcare?

A
  • Neuroticism is associated with pickiness and fussiness.
  • They use more healthcare because they pay more attention to bodily sensations and label them as ‘symptoms.’
  • But there’s no consistent evidence of health enhancing or health damaging increase in neurotics.
31
Q

What is the locus of control theory?

A
  • The idea of externality and internality as reason.
32
Q

What is the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control and who invented it?

A
  • Wallson et al, 1978.

- Locus of control is specific to health beliefs.

33
Q

What is the interal aspect of LOC?

A
  • Determine your own health; outcome responsibility of oneself.
  • Health-protective behaviour.
34
Q

What is the external aspect of LOC?

A
  • Health as matter of luck/fate.
35
Q

Who are the powerful others in LOC?

A
  • Doctors/Surgeons etc.
36
Q

What did Normal et all (1998) find in terms of the Health Locus of Control in terms of it being a health predictor?

A
  • It was a weak predictor.
37
Q

How might social norms impact on health?

A
  • Environmental influences such as culture, society, family, subculture, peer group and the media can influence behaviour.
  • We give more attention to the beliefs of our peers than we do to our parents.
  • Learn from own experiences but also ‘vicariously.’
38
Q

What are the 3 components of attitude-objects?

A
  • Thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
  • Cognitive - beliefs about attitude-object - smoking = weak/dangerous.
  • Emotions - feelings towards attitude-object - smoking = disgusting/pleasurable.
  • Behaviour - intended towards attitude-object - I won’t smoke.
39
Q

What is risk perception?

A
  • How likely we think that we are to experience illness.

- We often compare ourselves to others; ‘I don’t smoke as much as as my friend so I’ll be fine’ etc.

40
Q

What is unrealistic optimism?

A
  • There are 4 factors involves (Weinstein, 1987).
  • Lack of Personal Experience with Behaviour/Problem.
  • Belief that an action can prevent.
  • Belief that if a problem hasn’t occurred, it won’t in the future.
  • Belief that the problem is uncommon.
41
Q

What motivates us to act in a healthy manner?

A
  • Attractiveness, relationships, children, marriage (social roles)?
42
Q

How did Bandura (1986) define self-efficacy?

A
  • ‘Belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the sources of action requires to manage prospective situations.’
43
Q

What is self-efficacy?

A
  • Our belief in our abilities to successfully execute required behaviour to produce outcome confidence.
44
Q

What psychosocial factors are involved in health behaviour?

A
  • Demographic factors.
  • Personality.
  • Social norms.
  • Attitudes.
  • Risk perceptions and unrealistic optimism.
  • Goals and motivation.
  • Self-efficacy.
45
Q

What are the Continuum Models of Health Behaviour?

A
  • Health Belief Models (HBM).
  • Protection Motivation Theory (PMT).
  • Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA).
  • Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB).
  • Implementation Intentions.
46
Q

Why are models important?

A
  • Models are rudimentary and provide a theoretical framework but aren’t detailed enough to fully explain observations.
  • Help to generate research, predict behaviour and explain data and solve problems.
47
Q

What is the Health Belief Model (HBM) (Becker, 1974)?

A
  • Cognitive model.
  • Influence of demographic factors.
  • E.G. social class, gender, age…
48
Q

What are the processes involved in HBM?

A
  • Demographic factors.
  • Perceived barriers
    Perceived Benefits
  • Perceived severity
    Perceived susceptibility.
    = Likelihood of behaviour.
49
Q

What are the internal and external beliefs of HBM?

A
  • Internal: symptoms of illness.

- External: TV programme.

50
Q

What are the limitations of the HBM model?

A
  • Problems with applications & content.
  • Not all versions include the same things.
  • Some components are studied independently.
  • It’s a static model. - Doesn’t allow for dynamic process of change in beliefs.
  • Only features 4 variables.
51
Q

What is the Protection Motivation Theory Model (PMT) (Rogers, 1975. 1983. 1985)?

A
  • Expanded from the HBM.
  • Health behaviour is a result of 4 components; severity, susceptibility, response effectiveness and self-efficacy. Fear was added later.
  • Predict behaviour intention which precedes behaviour.
52
Q

What do severity, susceptibility and fear work together to create?

A
  • Threat appraisal.
53
Q

What is response effectiveness? How does this relate to self-efficacy?

A
  • What is intended to be successful.
  • Self-efficacy relates to the ability to carry out intention.
    = Coping appraisal (this can be adaptive/maladaptive).
54
Q

What is the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) (Azjen & Fishbein, 1970)?

A
  • It’s a social cognition model (from SLT - Bandura).
  • Assumes social perceptions, expectation and beliefs = determines behaviour.
  • Behave in goal directed manner - outcomes expectancies weighed up rationally before deciding whether to engage in behaviour.
  • Behaviour determined by intention.
55
Q

What are the features of the PMT model?

A
  • Fear, Self-Efficacy, Response Effectiveness, Susceptibility, Severity.
  • Behaviour Intentions.
    = Behaviour.
56
Q

What are features of the TRA model?

A
  • Demographic/Personality/Past Experiences.
  • Normative Beliefs + Motivation to Comply = Subjective Norm.
  • Outcome Expectancies + Outcome Value = Attitude toward behaviour.
  • Behaviour Intention.
    = Behaviour.
57
Q

Give an example of the TRA.

A
  • Attitude = smoking is dangerous.
  • Stopping = reduce chance of cancer (outcome expectancies).
  • Health is important = sports (outcome value).
  • Sports friends don’t smoke; tell me to stop (normative beliefs) + want to be fit (motivation to comply).
58
Q

What are limitations of TRA?

A
  • Originally developed: applications to volitional behaviour (under person’s control). - Much isn’t volitional (smoking).
  • Doesn’t acknowledge transaction between predictor variables (attitudes and subjective norms) + outcomes of intention or behaviour.
  • Need longitudinal studies = makes poss. to disentangle cause + affect relationships.
59
Q

What is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)? (Azjen, 1985, 1991).

A
  • Social cognition model.
  • Added Perceived Behaviour Control (PBC).
  • PBC = direct influence on behaviour intention, and indirect influence on behaviour.
  • Influenced by past behaviour and successes/failures. - it’s similar to self-efficacy.
60
Q

What are the features of TPB?

A
  • Demographics/Personality/Past Experiences.
  • Perceived Internal/External Control Factors = Perceived Behaviour Control.
  • Normative Beliefs + Motivation to Comply = Subjective Norm.
  • Outcome Expectancies + Outcome Values = Attitude Toward Behaviour.
  • Behaviour Intention.
    = Behaviour.
61
Q

What are the internal and external elements of control in the TPB model?

A
  • Internal = skills/abilities/info - contribute to individual freedom and control.
  • External = obstacles/opportunities.
62
Q

What are the limitations of the TPB model?

A
  • Lower than prediction of intention - need to identify further variables that move individual from intention to action.
  • Claims to be ‘sufficient’ but several have challenged - other factors have had an impact.
  • ‘Moral norms’ - some behaviours may be motivated by these - esp. those directly involving others e.g. condom use.
  • Anticipatory Regret.
  • Self-Identity.
  • Implementation Intention.
63
Q

What are Implementation Intentions (Gollwitzer, 1993, 1999)?

A
  • Part of the process involved in turning intention into action - filling intention-behaviour gap - limitation in behaviour prediction
  • Increases commitment.
  • If goals are valued and self-efficacy is high, there should be good outcomes.
  • Make plans to follow on a regular basis - implementation of ideas promoting change.
64
Q

What are the Stage Models of Health Behaviour?

A
  • Transtheoretical.
  • Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPA).
  • Health Action Process Approach (HAPA).
65
Q

What is the Transtheoretical model of health behaviour? (Weinstein, 1988).

A
  • 4 properties.
  • Classification system to define stages = theoretical constructs; prototype for each but few will perfectly match ideal.
  • Ordering of stages = must through all to reach point of action or maintenance. Progression is neither inevitable or irreversible.
  • Common barriers to change facing people within same stage - helpful; encourages progression through stages if people at one stage have to address similar issues.
  • Diff. barriers to change facing people in diff. stages. = factors producing movement to next stage same regardless of stage = same intervention used for all; stages = redundant. Ample evidence showing diff. barriers exist in diff. stages.
66
Q

What is the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1986)?

A
  • Stages of change developed form quitters of smoking.
  • Stages people move through when quitting.
  • Different processes involved at each stage.
  • Looked at attitudes throughout; motivation and why?
67
Q

What are the features of the TTM?

A
  • Precontemplation.
  • Contemplation.
  • Preperation.
  • Action.
  • Relapse.
  • Maintenance.
  • Relapse.
  • Termination (6 months?)
68
Q

What are the features of the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) (Weinstein + Sandman, 1992).

A
  • Unaware of issue.
  • Unengaged.
  • Considering whether to act.
  • Deciding not to act.
  • Deciding to act.
  • Action.
  • Maintenance.
69
Q

What is the Health Access Process Approach (HAPA) (Schwarzer, 1992)?

A
  • Distinguish the motivational and volitional phases - the 2 stages; individual first decides to act and then makes plans to begin maintaining behaviours.
  • Motivation phase looks at self-efficacy, outcome expectancies and risk perceptions.
70
Q

What are the three major predictions of health behaviour intentions? (HAPA model)

A
  • Self-efficacy.
  • Outcome expectancies.
  • Risk perception.
    = Leads to goals.
71
Q

HAPA - what does the volition phase subdivide into?

A
  • Planning phase.
  • Action phase.
  • Maintenance phase.
  • Self-efficacy is crucial in both.

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