Interviews

Question 1

Types of interviews

Answer 1

• the difference between types of interviews is how free the interviewer is to vary the questions and the way they are asked
  1. Structured or formal interviews
  2. Un structured or informal interviews
  3. Semi structured interviews
  4. Group interviews

Question 2

What are structures interviews?

Answer 2

• are very similar to questionnaires: the interviewer is given strict instructions on how to ask the questions. The interviewer is conducted in the same standardised way each time, asking each interviewee precisely the same questions, word for word, in the same order, tone of voice and so on

Question 3

What are unstructured interviews?

Answer 3

• are like a guided convocation. The interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, their wording, order and so on from one interview to the next, pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate at the time, asking follow up questions or probing more deeply

Question 4

Semi structured interviews

Answer 4

• where each interview has the same set of questions in common, but the interviewer can also probe for more information. E.g, cicourel and kitsuse always followed by their questions with ‘how do you mean?’ As a way of gaining more information. Additional questions can be asked where the interviewer thinks is relevant

Question 5

What are group interviews?

Answer 5

• group interviews, with up to a dozen other so people being interview together. Willis used group interviews as part of his research into ‘lads’ and schooling
• focus groups are a form of group interviews in which the researcher asks the group to discus certain topics and records their views. Group interviews have their own particular strengths and limitations

Question 6

Strengths of group interviews

Answer 6

• participants may feel more comfortable being with others and are more likely to open up
• in a discussion, participants often throw ideas around the group, stimulating each others thinking. This produces richer and more reflective data
• they can be a useful way of generating initial ideas than can be followed up in later research
• the researcher can combine questioning with the opportunity to observe group dynamics and norms

Question 7

Limitations of group interviews

Answer 7

• one or two individuals may dominate the discussion, inhibiting others from contributing
• much depends on the researchers ability to keep the groin focused on the discussion topic
• peer group pressure to conform to group norms may lead to participants not saying what they really think
• data generated from group interaction is more competent and difficult to analyse

Question 8

Structured interviews

Answer 8

• structured interviews are like questionnaires: both involve asking people a set of prepared questions. In both cases, the questions are usually closed with pre coded answers. The main differences is that in the interview, the questions are read out and the answers filled in by a trained interviewer rather than by the interviewee
• the basic similarity between structured interviews and questionnaires means that they share many of the same advantages and disadvantages. Where there are differences, these can often come from the fact that structured interviews involve interaction between researcher and interviewee

Question 9

1. Practical issues - structured interviews

Answer 9

• training interviewers is relatively straightforward and inexpensive, since all they are really required to do is follow a set of instructions. However, this is more costly than simply posting or emailing questionnaires to people
• surveys that use structured interviews can cover quite large number of people with relatively limited resources because they are quick and fairly cheap to administer. However, they still cannot match the potentially huge numbers reached by postal questionnaires
• structures interviews are suitable for gathering straightforward factual information such as a persons age or job
• the results are easily quantified because they are close ended questions with coded answers. This makes them suitable for hypothesis testing

Question 10

2. Response rate - structured interviews

Answer 10

• the large numbers who can be surveyed using structured interviews increase the chances of obtaining a representative sample of the population. Although the numbers that can be studies are lower than for questionnaires, structured interviews generally have a higher response rate. E.g, of the 987 people young and willmott approached for their main sample, only 54 refused to be interviewed. This may be because people find it harder to turn down a face to face request, and some may welcome the opportunity to talk
• response rates can be increased if the interviewer can make serval call backs to pursue those who fail to respond initially. However, this increases the costs of the survey. High response rates help to produce a more representative result and therefore a better basis for making generalisations
• on the other hand, as with questionnaires, those with the time or willingness to being interviewed may be untypical. I’d so, this will produce underrepresented data and undermine the validity of any generalisations made from the findings

Question 11

3. Reliability - structured interviews

Answer 11

• if a method is reliable, another sociologist could repeat the research and get the same results results. Structured interviews are seen as realise because it is easy for the researcher to standardise and control them. That can ensure that each interview is conducted in precisely the same way, with the same questions, in the same order, with the same wording and tone of voice
• in each interviewer conducts every interview in exactly the same way, then any other researcher following the same interview procedures should get very similar results. The structured interview provides a ‘recipe’ for repeating the research

Question 12

4. Validity - structured interviews

Answer 12

• a valid method is one that provides a true, authentic picture of the topic being researched. Critics of structured interviews argue that, like questionnaires, they often produce a false picture of the subjects they are trying to study
• structured interviews usually use close ended questions that restrict interviewees to choosing a limited number of pre set answers. If non of these answers fits what the interviewee really wishes to stay, the data obtained will be invalid
• structured interviews give interviewers very little freedom to explain questions or clarify misunderstandings. E.g, they may be given one alternative form of words to use if the interviewee doesnt understand the question, but if this fails to do the trick the interviewer usually has to move on to the next question
• people may lie or exaggerate. These responses will produce false data
• the interview is a social interaction and so there is always a risk that the interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee will influence the answers given. E.g, gender and ethnic differences can affect the answers, as can the interviewee’s desire to be seen in a favourable light

Question 13

5. Inflexibility - structured interviews

Answer 13

• like self completed questionnaires, structured interviews suffer from the inflexibility that comes from having to draw up the questions in advance. In doing so, the researcher has already decided what is important
• as a result, the findings may lack validity because they do not reflect the interviewees concerns and priorities. In particular, establishing the questions beforehand and then sticking to them rigidly will make it impossible to pursue any interesting leads that emerge in the course of the interviews, thereby losing valuable insights
• also like questionnaires, structured interviews are merely snapshots taken at one moment in time, so they fail to capture the flowing, dynamic nature of social life - unlike participant observation

Question 14

6. Feminist criticisms - structured interviews

Answer 14

• graham argued that survey methods such as questionnaires and structured interviews are patriarchal and give a distorted, invalid picture of women’s experience. She argues:
• the researcher, not the female interviewee, is in control of the interview and decides the line of questioning to be followed. This mirrors women’s subordination in wider society
• survey methods treat women as isolated individuals rather than seeing them in the context of the power relationships that oppress them
• surveys impose the researchers categories on women making it difficult for them to express their experiences of oppression, thus concealing the unequal power relationships between the sexes
• these feminist criticism are similar to those put forward by interprevists sociologists, who argue that structured interviews fail to reveal how the interviewee sees their situation. Graham argues that sociologists need to use methods that allow the researcher to understand women’s behaviour, attitudes and meanings. She therefore advocates the use of direct observation instead of structured interviews
• other feminist favour unstructured interviews, which enable the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship based on trust, empathy and support

Question 15

Unstructured interviews

Answer 15

• in an unstructured interview the interviewer has complete freedom to vary the interview.
• supporters argue that this had many advantages

Question 16

Advantages of unstructured interviews

Answer 16

• unstructured interviews are widely seen as a way of gathering valid data, enabling researchers to get a deeper understanding of the interviewees world.
  1. Rapport and sensitivity
  2. The interviewees view
  3. Checking understanding
  4. Flexibility
  5. Exploring unfamiliar topics

Question 17

1. Rapport and sensitivity - unstructured interviews

Answer 17

• the informality of unstructured interviews allows the interviewer to develop rapport (relationship if trust and understanding) with the interviewee. This is more likely to put the interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up than a formal structured interview
• e.g, labov study - when using formal a formal interview technique to study the language of black American children, labov found that they appeared tongue tied and ‘linguistically deprived’. However adopting a more relaxed, informal style - the interviewer sitting on the floor, the children allowed to have a friend present - brought a completely different response. The children opened up and spoke freely, showing that they were competent speakers
• unstructured interviews are particularly useful when researching sensitive topics. E.g, dobash and dobash used them to study domestic violence. The empathy and encouragement of the interviewer will help the interviewee to feel comfortable discussing difficult or personal subjects such as abuse

Question 18

2. The interviewees view - unstructured interviews

Answer 18

• because there are no set questions, unstructured interviews allow the interviewee more opportunity to speak about those things they think are more important. This contrast with the structured interview, where the researcher decides in advance what questions are worth asking and limits interviewees to a foxed range of possible answers. By allowing them greater freedom to express their views, an unstructured interview is more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data. Similarly, the interviewers probing can help formulate and develop interviewees thoughts more clearly
• dean and gooby - study of claimants experiences of unemployment - used unstructured tape recorded interviews, lasting up to 90 minutes, with 85 claimants
• this approach gives interviewees the freedom to talk in their own terms about the issues that concern them

Question 19

3. Checking understanding - unstructured interviews

Answer 19

• in structured interviews, there is a great danger that the interviewee misunderstands the question, or the interviewer misunderstands the answers
• a major advantage of unstructured interviews is that they make is much easier for interviewer and interviewee to check each others meanings
• if the interviewee doesn’t understand a question, it can be explained
• similarly, if the interviewer is unsure what the interviewees answers means, follow up questions can be put to clarify matters

Question 20

4. Flexibility - unstructured interviews

Answer 20

• unstructured interviews are high flexible. The interviewee is not restricted to a fixed set of questions in advance, but can explore whatever seems interesting or relevant. The researcher can formulate new ideas and hypotheses and then put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview. There is no need to go away and draw up a new interview schedule, as there would be if using structured interviews

Question 21

5. Exploring familiar topics - unstructured interviews

Answer 21

• with structured interviews, researchers have some knowledge of the subject and preferably a clear hypothesis before they start interviewing; otherwise, they work havre little idea of what questions to ask
• however, where the subject is one that we dont yet know much about about, unstructured interviews may be more useful, precisely because they are open ended and exploratory. And with an ordinary conversation, we can start out knowing nothing and, by asking questions, learn as we go along. Some sociologists use unstructured interviews as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation such as questionnaires

Question 22

Disadvantages of unstructured interviews

Answer 22

1. Practical problems
2. Representativeness
3. Reliability
4. Quantification
5. Validity

Question 23

1. Practical problems - unstructured interviews

Answer 23

• time and sample size - being in depth explorations, unstructured interviews take a long time to conduct - often several hours each. This limits the number that can be carried out and means that the researcher will have a relatively small sample compared with larger numbers who can be studied using structured interviews or questionnaires
• training - also needs to be more thorough than for someone conducting structured interviews. The interviewer needs to have a background in sociology so they can recognise when the interviewee has made a sociologically important points so they can probe further with an appropriate line of questioning. All this adds to the costs
• interpersonal skills - interviewers also need good interpersonal skills so they can establish the rapport that is essential if interviewees are to answer fully and honestly

Question 24

2. Representativeness - unstructured interviews

Answer 24

• the smaller numbers involved mean it is more likely that the sample interviewed will not be representative. This means that it will be harder to make valid generalisations based on the findings of the interviews

Question 25

3. Reliability - unstructured interviews

Answer 25

• unstructured interviews are not reliable because they are not standardised. Each interview is unique: interviews are free to ask different questions in each case if they feel it is relevant to do so. This makes it virtually impossible for another researcher to replicate the interviews and check the findings or compare them with their own

Question 26

4. Quantification - unstructured interviews

Answer 26

• because unstructured interviews use mainly open ended questions, the answers cannot be pre coded. This makes it very difficult to count up and quantify the number of interviewees giving this or that answer. In turn, the lack of quantitative date makes unstructured interviews less useful for establishing cause and effect relationships and hypothesis testing that positivists prefer

Question 27

5. Validity - unstructured interviews

Answer 27

• unstructured interviews are generally seen as producing valid data. However, critics argue that the fact that they involve an interaction between the interviewee inevitably colours and sports the information obtained
• as we have seen, structured interviews also face the same problem, even if not to the same extent.

Question 28

Positivists and structured interviews

Answer 28

• positivists favour structured interviews because they achieve the min positivist goals of reliability, generalisability and representativeness:
• standardised questions and answers produce reliable data because other researchers can replicate the interview
• pre coded responses allow us to produce quantitive data, identify and measure behaviour patterns, and establish cause and effect relationships
• structured interviews are often large scale and therefore more representative

Question 29

Interpretivists and unstructured interviews

Answer 29

• interpretivists reject structured interviews because they impose the researchers framework of ideas on interviewees
• interprevists favour unstructured interviews because they achieve the main interprevists goal of validity:
• absence if a pre set structure means interviewees can discus what is important to them
• open ended questions allow interviewees to express themselves in their own words, thereby producing qualitative data that gives us an insight into their meanings
• positivists reject unstructured interviews because each one is unique and cannot be replicated

Question 30

The interview as a social interaction

Answer 30

• all interviews involve a social interaction between interviewer and interviewee. The danger is that the interviewee may be responding not to the questions themselves but to the social situation in which they are asked
• social interactions can threaten the validity of interviews in serval ways
  1. Interviewer bias
  2. Artificiality
  3. Status and power inequalities
  4. Cultural differences
  5. The social desirability effect
  6. Ethnical issues

Question 31

1. Interviewer bias

Answer 31

• the interviewer may as ‘leading’ questions, where the words ‘tells’ the interviewer how to answer the question. Interviewers may also consciously or unconsciously influence the answer by their facial expression, body language or tone of voice
• another source of interview bias is where the interviewer identifies too closely with the interviewees. E.g, Oakley admits, as a mother herself, she found it difficult to remain detached and neutral when interviewing other women about maternity and childbirth

Question 32

A. Artificiality

Answer 32

• even the most relaxed of unstructured interviews is still an interview and not a normal conversation: both parties know it is an interview, which one ‘sides’ takes the initiative and asks the questions. Under these artificial conditions, it is sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers can be obtained

Question 33

3. Status and power inequalities

Answer 33

• inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may affect the interviewees honesty or willingness to answer in general, the bigger status difference, the less valid the data. E.g, rich shows that when adults interview children, the child’s need to please the interviewer will affect their answers
• similarly gender differences in power can shape the interview, while ethnic inequalities between interviwer and interviewee may male interviewing very difficult. This led griffin to abandon interviewing in favour of using participant observation
• while all interviews risk distorting the data as a result of these factors, structured interviews may be less susceptible. This is because in a structured interview there are more controls over. The nature of the interaction. E.g, the interviewer has to follow a standard list of pre set questions

Question 34

4. Cultural differences

Answer 34

• these may also undermine validity. E.g, there may be misunderstandings as a result of different meanings being given to the same words
• the cultural gap may also mean that interviewers cannot tell when they are being lied to. E.g, meads research on adolescents has been criticised on the grounds that mead, who couldn’t speak the language, was unable to spot that the girls she interviewed had deliberately misled her

Question 35

5. The social desirability effect

Answer 35

• the social interaction, people often seek to win approval. This may benefit even truer in an interview, where interviewees may be on their best behaviour and give answers that present them in a favourable light
• they may also wish not to appear ignorant or uninteresting and so, instead of saying that they dont know or don’t understand the question, they offer any answer at all rather than none

Question 36

6. Ethnical issues

Answer 36

• there are relatively few ethnical problems with interviews. Nevertheless, because they interview is a social interaction, the interviewee may feel under some pressure to answer questions. Researchers should gain interviewees informed consent, guarantee anonymity and make it clear that they have no right not to answer any of the questions that they do not wish to. Interviews on sensitive topics, or with vulnerable people, may also risk causing psychological harm

Question 37

Improving the validity of interviews

Answer 37

• some researchers use techniques to improve the chances of obtaining valid data. E.g, to reduce the chance of interviewees making up answers or telling lies, Kinseys interviews on sexual behaviour asked questions questions rapidly, giving interviewees little time to think, and used some questions to check the answers given to others. Follow up interviews 18 months later were also used as a way of checking earlier answers
• Becker developed another approach in his interview with 60 Chicago school teachers. He used aggression, disbelief and ‘playing dumb’ as ways of extracting sensitive information from them that they might not otherwise have revealed, about how they classified pupils in terms of their social class and ethnic background. However, the success of such tactics requires the researcher to have special skills. For the same reason, this approach might also prove difficult to replicate
• other researchers have overcome the problem of cultural differences by ensuring that interviewers and interviewees are ethnically and language matched.