International Relations 1919-1935

Question 1

Why did Entente powers insist on Article 231 and the War Guilt cause ?

Answer 1

. Universal agreement that Germany was guilty for having started the war
. Principle of war guilt which provided moral justification for the reparation clauses, as stressed in Article 231

Question 2

Why were demands for reparations so high ?
What difficulties were there on settling on a figure ?

Answer 2

. Need to cover the costs of financing the war .Britain covered 1/3 of their war expenditure through taxes, France just 1/6

. Nature of damage deserving compensation and how Germany could raise large sums of money without rebuilding export which might harm Allied industries.

Question 3

How did nations disagree on idea of disarmament ?

Answer 3

. British and USA wished to destroy Germany’s tradition of conscription. Instead wanted small professional army created along lines of British/US peacetime armies
. French feared professional German army would become lightly organised centre of trained men, capable of quick expansion

Question 4

USA and France disagreement over the Saarland ?

Answer 4

. Clemenceau insisted restoration to France of part of the Saar which’d been given to Prussia
^ Aimed to detach mineral and industrial basin to north (never been French), place it under non-German industrialisation
. Demanded ownership of Saar coalmines to compensate for destruction of pits in France by Germany
. Wilson agreed to French access to coalmines until production of their own mines had been restored, outright to other demands

Question 5

Frances aims in Rhineland

Answer 5

. Clash between Britain and France
. British had no ambition on the Rhine
. French saw it as unique opportunity to weaken Germany permanently by making whole region independent of Berlin
^ would deprive Germany of natural defensive line of the Rhine
. British feared this would create new tension between France/Germany and tilt balance of power in Europe towards France

Question 6

David Lloyd George (PM Britain) solution to Danzig ?

Answer 6

. Opposed inclusion of Danzig as feared long-term resentment of predominantly German-speaking population
^ Feared Berlin may turn to Bolshevik Russia for help
. Threatened to withdraw from Anglo-American guarantee, forced Clemenceau to establish a free/autonomous city of Danzig
. Also forced Clemenceau to hold a vote for Marienwerder (town in Poland) - vote decision was for it to stay in Germany

Question 7

How were German colonies divided up ?

Answer 7

. Wilson insisted League should have ultimate control over Former German colonies
^ Accepted reluctantly by British Dominions (New Zealand, Aus, South Africa)
. Britain, France, South Africa = most German colonies in Africa
. Aus, New Zealand, Japan = German possessions in Pacific
. Italy = Control of Juba Valley (East Africa), few minor territorial adjustments made to its Libyan frontier with Algeria
. Japan determined to get ex-German territory in Shantung
^ China argued any former German rights should automatically revert to Chinese state (recognised Japanese rights in Shantung)
. Wilson anxious to block growth of Japanese influence in Pacific and supported China
^ France and Britain backed Japan (wanted to protect own rights in China)
. Wilson already locked in conflict with Italians over claims to Fiume had no option but to concede
^ Arguable this humiliating defeat did a lot to turn US senate against TOV

Question 8

Recovery of Alscae - Lorraine

Answer 8

Reoccupied by France in 1920 as part of ToV, although annexed by France in 1918
^ effort to limit German influence and please the French

Question 9

What was the Conference of Ambassadors

Answer 9

. Victorious powers set up series of inter-related commissions to organise votes, monitor German disarmament and examine Germany’s financial position
^ reported to conference of ambassadors
. Real decisions taken by Allied Prime ministers (met 24x between 1920-1924)

Question 10

What differences were there between Britain and France to weaken Germany ?

Answer 10

. Britain = balance of power, prevent either French/German domination
^ Only peaceful Germany could pay reparations

. France = swung between occasionally exploring possibilities of economic co-operation with Germany and applying forceful measures to permenantly weaken Germany

Question 11

Polish Borders - Upper Silesia
^ (Search for peace in 1920s)

Answer 11

. Had a population of 2,280,000 Germans and Poles, divided along ethnic lines and coalmines/industries

. Votes didn’t solve Anglo-french disagreements
- Britain: keep industrial regions German = help with reparations and feared Berlin would turn to Russia
France: should be awarded to Poland

. Poland seized control of industry areas (legally German) uprising May 1921
^ order restored by British and French troops - handed over to LofN, league decided to hand most of it over to Poland

Question 12

Britain and France attitudes to reparation payments ?

Answer 12

. Fixing a global total - once Germany knew full sum could start raising money in the USA from the scale of Government bonds
^ Crash on Wall Street (Oct 1929)

Question 13

Reparation Commission

Answer 13

. April 1921 fixed global total of 132 billion gold marks over 42yrs
^ Germany rejected (too high) ultimatum dispatched to Berlin giving them 1 week to accept or Ruhr would be occupied

Question 14

What did Walter Rathenau (Austrian) do ?

Answer 14

. Determined to pursue policy of negotiation
. 1st instalment paid, Rathenau made good progress persuading French to accept payment in forms of industrial goods and coal
. End of 1921, German Gov couldn’t raise currency to meet next instalment

Question 15

The Genoa Conference (1922)
^ disarmament

Answer 15

. Britain convinced Germany needed a temp suspension of payments (moratorium)
^ key to payment and a European economic revival lay in creating European group of international nations, rebuild Russia - generate international trade boom

. French agreed to hold conference in Geneva both Germany and Russia invited
. Germany and Russia secretly negotiated Rapallo Agreement - wrote off any financial claims on each other
^Germany would consult with Russia before participating in international plans - investing in Soviet economy
- Secret annex signed in July allowed Germany to train in Russian territory = violating ToV

Question 16

Occupation of the Ruhr

Answer 16

July 1922 request for 3yr moratorium
^ same time Britain announced USA demanding repayment of British wartime debts - insist on repayment of money loaned to former allies

. 27th Nov Poincare Cabinet decided occupation of the Ruhr only way of forcing Germany to pay
11th Jan = French and Belgain troops moved in
^ Britain didn’t - adopted ‘benevolent neutrality’ towards France

. 9 months hit by strikes funded by German Gov - triggered hyperinflation and Streseman called off

. Ruhr crisis marked end of attempts to carry out TofV by force and beginning of gradual revision of the treaty

Question 17

USA’s aims and principles after WWI

Answer 17

. Wilson strongly believed Germany had to be punished for starting the war - should be put on probation before joining LofN
. Determined to ensure 14 points was the basis of peace negotiations and anchor the covenant of LofN
^ Key to creating just and lasting peace
. General agreement for set up on independent nation states in East Europe and Balkans, confine Turkey to its ethnic frontiers = points 10-13
. Point 7 and 8 = liberation of Belgium and return of Alsace Lorraine to France
. Wilson ready to compromise on other issues

Question 18

France’s aims and principles after WWI

Answer 18

. 14 points failed to impress - only effective balance of power could contain Germany
. Reduced birth rate, 1.3 million dead - faced a Germany which was potentially stronger than in 1914
. Anxious to enforce max disarmament and reparation payments - instead set up strong independent Polish states and independent Rhineland state
. Wanted alliance with Britain and USA to continue - inter-allied financial and economic co-operation

Question 19

Britain’s aims and principles after WWI

Answer 19

. Already achieved many of its aims:
- German fleet surrendered
- German trade no longer a threat
- German army driven back
^ territorial ambitions in Middle East

. Peaceful, united Germany would act as a barrier against spread of Bolshevism
. Avoid long-term British commitments on Europe and prevent annexation of German minorities by Poland or France
. Objectives opposed to the French policy
. Policy pointed towards peace rather than revenge
. Reparations and war guilt were fundamental

Question 20

Italy’s aims and principles after WWI

Answer 20

. Prime minister anxious to convince voters they’d done well out of the war
^ Concentrated initially on holding the Entente to their promises made in Treaty of London and demanding port of Fiume

Question 21

Japan’s aims and principles after WWI

Answer 21

. Wanted recognition for territorial gains
. Pushed hard (unsuccessful) to have racial equality clause included in convent of LofN
^ hoped would protect Japanese immigrants in UK

Question 22

Failures of the League of Nations
(Fiume)

Answer 22

Fiume - Italy and Yugoslavia:
- 1919: Italy decided ‘big three’ had broken promises to them
^ Captured small port of Fiume - given to Yugoslavia by treaty
. 15 months governed by Italian nationalists d’Annunzio - league did nothing
^ Sorted by Italian Gov, bombarded port and forced surrender = couldn’t accept d’Annunzio was more popular

Question 23

Failures of the League of Nations
(Russia and Poland)

Answer 23

War Between Russia and Poland
- 1920 Poland invaded land by Russians
^ Poles overwhelmed Russian army
. 1921 Russia had to sign Treaty of Riga handing over 80,000sq km of land
^ doubled size of Poland
. Russia was communist - greatly feared

Question 24

Failures of the League of Nations
(Invasion of the Ruhr)

Answer 24

France/Belgium and Germany
- 1922 = Germany failed to pay an instalment - claimed they couldn’t
^ France and Belgium decided they needed strong punishment
. 1923 (against league rules) invaded the Ruhr and LofN did nothing
^ for league to be enforced, needed support of major brackets in Europe
. Made it seem you could break league rules with no punishment

Question 25

Successes of the League of Nations
(The Aaland Islands)

Answer 25

Finland and Sweden
. Islands equal distance between both
. Traditionally belonged to Finland but most islanders wanted to be governed by Sweden
^ Asked the league
. Should remain with Finland - no weapons kept there
. Both countries accepted

Question 26

Successes of the League of Nations
(Upper Silesia)

Answer 26

Germany and Poland
. TofV given people of Upper Silesia vote on whether they wanted to be part of Germany/Poland
^ 700,000 for Germany and 500,00 for Poland - resulted in rioting
. League splitted Upper Silesia and accepted by everyone

Question 27

Successes of the League of Nations
(Social Successes)

Answer 27

. Fresh water wells in Africa
. Improve status of women and child slave labour
. Wipe out leprosy

Question 28

Washington Conference/Five Power Naval Treaty (1922)

Answer 28

. Worlds largest naval powers gathered in Washington for conference: naval disarmament and relieve growing tension in East Asia
. 5 power treaty signed by: US,UK, Japan, France, Italy
^ Called for each country to maintain set ratio of warship tonnage

Success: stopped another war breaking out, not every country happy with amount of tonnage allowed

Question 29

Dawes Plan (1924)

Answer 29

. Germany’s annual reparation payments reduced, increasing over time as economy improved
^ Full amount undetermined
. Economic policy making would be re-organised and foreign supervision of new currency, France and Belgium evacuate the Ruhr
. Foreign would loan Germany 2 million dollars

Success/Failure: success until Wall Street Crash (1929) - Germany had to pay back loans to US immediately and Britain and France
^ led to Young Plan

Question 30

Locarno Treaty (1925)

Answer 30

. Guaranteed Germany’s western frontier: France, Belgium, Germany pledged to treat as invoioable
. Britain and Italy committed to repel any armed aggression across the frontier

Success/Failure: improved relations between Europe until 1930. Belief there would be peaceful settlements to disputes in future. Re-enforced when Germany joined LofN in 1926
^ wasn’t peaceful in future - WW2

Question 31

Kellogg Briand Pact (1928)

Answer 31

Agreed upon 2 clauses:
- war was an instrument of national policy
- Signatories settle their disputes peacefully
. Aug 1928: 15 nations signed pact at Paris

Failure: WW2 happened - nations didn’t stick to the pact continued to be conflict

Question 32

Young Plan (1929)

Answer 32

. Young: reduce total amount of reparations to 121 billion gold marks over 58yrs
. Foreign supervision of German finances cease and last occupying troops would leave German soil
. Establishment of Bank of International Settlements

Success: Germany’s reparations reasonable amount - Angered some German nationalists and other countries
^ went against TofV

Question 33

What happened during Manchurian Crisis (1932)

Answer 33

. Sep 1931 = bomb exploded on railway line - both Japanese/Chinese troops stationed
^ Blamed Chinese - provided Japan to occupy whole of southern Manchuria
. China appealed to LofN - asked Japan to withdraw to railway (ignored) sent commission of inquiry
. Neither Britain and USA ready to use force

Question 34

Why did Manchurian Crisis happen (1932)

Answer 34

. Japan awarded lease of South Manchurian railway and right to protect it (15,000 troops)
^ late 1920s threatened by turmoil caused by Chinese civil war
. Failure of Gov to deal with Great Depression convinced Japanese officer corps to occupy whole of Manchuria
^ control regions of valuable coal/iron resources, economic nationalism making it difficult to purchase materials elsewhere

Question 35

Consequences of the Manchuria Crisis (1932)

Answer 35

. LofN received commission report Sep 1932
^ Japan should withdraw to railway and both should negotiate a treaty guaranteeing Japans’ rights and a non-aggression pact
. Changed balance of power in Pacific
. Japan broke restraints of Washington Conference - guaranteed access to Coal/Iron ore resources
. Japan now good position for large-scale military invasion on China

Question 36

Why did Abyssinian Crisis happen (1935)

Answer 36

. Italy wanted to build large empire in North Africa - distracted people from impact of Great Depression
. Started planning 1932: provide land for Italian settlers, connect Eritrea with Italian Somaliland, put most of horn of Africa under Italian control
. Dec 1934 - clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops

Question 37

What happened during the Abyssinian Crisis (1935)

Answer 37

Oct 1935 - invasion began
. Jan 1935 French foreign minister verbally promised Italy free hand - Britain wanted to avert crisis
. Oct 1935 - LofN condemned Italian invasion, gradually esculating programme of sanctions
.Britain and France wanted compromise
^ Both foreign ministers planned 2/3 of Abyssinia under Italy - would’ve been accepted but leaked in French press, British public furious
. LofN put no embargo on oil exports to Italy, Britain refused to close Juez Canal in risk of starting another war
. May 1936 - Italy overrun Abyssinia

Question 38

Consequences of the Abyssinian Crisis (1935)

Answer 38

. Vital turning point 1930s - weaken league
. Hitler illegal remilitarisation of Rhineland, destroyed Franco-Italian friendship
^ Eventually enabled Hitler (1938) to absorb Austria without Italian opposition